/m 


3Sa 


ART-MANUFACTURES 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/applicationofartOOmaso 


THE  APPLICATION 


OJF 

ART  TO  MANUFACTURES. 

Mitjr  150  iltotratiro. 


BY 

GEORGE  C.  MASON. 


NEW  YORK : 

G • p PUTNAM,  321  BROADWAY. 


1858, 


We  should  do  our  utmost  to  encourage  the  beautiful, 
for  the  useful  encourages  itself." 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1857. 

BY  G.  P.  PUTNAM, 

in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of 

New  York. 


THE  GETTY  C-  T* 
LIBRARY 


PREFACE. 


N offering  this  little  work  to  the  public, 
the  author  wishes  to  take  no  credit  to 
himself  for  originality.  Much  here  pre- 
sented is  known  to  those  who  are  fami- 
liar with  such  branches  of  manufactures 
as  most  readily  admit  of  an  artistic  dis- 
play in  their  production,  and  possibly 
there  may  be  nothing  in  these  pages 
that  has  not  been  said  before ; but  in  no  one 
work,  treating  of  Metals  or  Ceramics,  will  all 
the  materials  here  brought  together  be  found. 
The  object  has  been  to  collect  such  facts  con- 
nected with  their  history,  with  some  particulars 
of  the  various  processes  of  converting  the  raw  mate- 
rial into  the  finished  goods,  as  are  most  likely  to 
prove  interesting,  and  to  call  attention  to  the  importance  of  a 


v; 


PREFACE. 


higher  development  of  art  in  our  manufactures.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  has  freely  drawn  from  Labarte’s  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
Phillips’  Metallurgy,  Holland’s  Treatise  on  the  Metals,  Napier’s 
Electro-Metallurgy,  Porter  on  Porcelain  afid  Glass,  Hunt’s  Mer- 
chant’s Magazine,  Ur e on  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  The  Scien- 
tific American,  Crystal  Palace  Record,  London  Art  Journal — 
which  is  doing  much  to  improve  public  taste  in  this  country  and 
in  England — and  many  other  works,  to  which  he  is  indebted  in  a 
less  degree,  and  which  would  be  referred  to  here  were  it  neces- 
sary. To  information  derived  from  these  sources,  he  has  added 
some  knowledge  of  the  practical  operations  of  the  workroom  and 
at  the  forge ; and  if  in  this  humble  way  he  can  call  attention  to 
the  importance  of  apjfiying  Art  more  generally  to  our  manufac- 
tures, he  will  not  have  labored  in  vain. 

The  refining  influence  of  Art  is  much  needed ; but  to  its  full 
development  we  may  not  look  forward  so  long  as  its  importance 
is  imperfectly  understood.  At  present  it  suffers  from  constant 
abuse  on  the  one  hand,  and  utter  neglect  on  the  other — on  the 
right,  gaudiness,  incongruity,  and  an  entire  want  of  feeling ; on 
the  left,  an  indifference  that  is  equally  culpable.  To  do  away 
with  these  extremes,  the  surest  way  is  to  place  articles  of  unex- 
ceptionable form  and  finish  within  the  reach  of  all ; so  that  the 
eye,  daily  becoming  more  and  more  familiar  with  that  which 
should  be  valued  as  much  for  its  beauty  as  for  its  utility,  will  in 
time  learn  not  only  to  appreciate  both  of  these  qualities,  but  ’will 
never  willingly  see  them  separated,  even  in  the  most  ordinary 
articles  of  daily  use. 

It  is  related  of  Constable,  that  when  West  took  up  a piece  of 
chalk  and  showed  him  how  he  could  improve  the  lights  and 
shades  of  his  picture,  he  remarked  that  it  was  the  best  lecture, 
because  a practical  one,  on  chiaroscuro  he  ever  heard.  The  same 
end  was  had  in  view  in  preparing  these  pages  on  the  application 


PREFACE. 


VII 


of  Art  to  Manufactures,  and  as  all  technical  terms  have  been  in  a 
great  measure  avoided,  and  efforts  have  been  made  to  clearly 
present  every  process,  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  will  interest  and 
improve  the  rising  generation,  for  whose  especial  benefit  they 
have  been  prepared. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chap.  I.  METALS, 1 

H.  IRON, 19 

III.  MOULDING  FOR  CAST-IRON, 31 

IV.  WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL, 51 

Y.  BRONZE, 74 

VI.  BRONZE  STATUES, 85 

VII.  GOLD  AND  SILVER, 108 

VIII.  GOLD  AND  SILVER  (Continued), 127 

IX.  ENAMELS, 150 

X.  TIIE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS, 160 

XI.  PORCELAIN, 194 

XII.  PORCELAIN  (Continued), 205 

XIII.  PORCELAIN  (Concluded), 221 

XIV.  CHINESE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PORCELAIN,  ...  234 

XV.  TERRA  COTTA, 245 

XVI.  GLASS, 249 

XVII.  GLASS  (Continued),  . . . . ....  250 

XVIII.  GLASS  (Concluded), 285 

XIX.  ORNAMENT, 302 

XX.  ORNAMENT  (Concluded), 


321 


\ 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Centre  Piece,  Silver — “ The  Halt  in  the  Desert,”  . . . frontispiece. 

Ornamental  Covered  Dish,  Parian,  .....  title-page. 

Ornamental  Inkstand.  (See  page  107,) v 

Vase,  Bronze, vii 

Butter-dish,  Silver, viii 

Bas-Relief,  Plaster, xi 

Tazza,  Iron,  19 

Fire-grate,  Iron  casting, 31 

Moulding  Box, 33 

Baptismal  Font,  Iron  casting, 46 

Statue  of  Sciiarnhorst,  do., 47 

Pistols,  . 49 

Column,  Iron  casting  (Berlin  Foundry),  . . .73 

Group  of  Horses,  Bronze  casting,  . . . . . . 74 

Chandelier,  do.,  82 

Gas  Bracket,  do., 83 

Chandelier,  Bronze  and  Enamel, 84 

Process  of  Casting,  in  Bronze, 86 

Statue,  Bronze, 88 

Vase,  do., 90 

Boar’s  Head,  do., 92 

| Crassula  Portijl ac aides,  Bronze, 92 

I Ornamental  Vase,  do., 93 

Group  of  the  Amazon,  Zinc  casting,  .......  94 

Clock,  Bronze, 102 

Candelabra,  do.,  . . . . . . . . . 102 

Candelabrum,  do., 103 

Candelabrum,  do., . . . . . . . . . 104 

Vases,  do., 106 

j Vase  (Elizabethan),  Silver, 108 

Vase — Vine  pattern,  Silver,  . . . . . . . . .115 

i Tea  Service,  do., 118 

Centre  Piece,  do., 120 

Wine  Cooler,  do., 122 


X 


ILLUSTRATIONS, 


Victoria  Salyer,  Oxidized  Silver, 

Vase,  do., 

Side-board  Ewer,  do., 

Salyer,  Silver,  

Centre  Piece — Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  and  the  Gypsies.  Silver, 

Ornamental  Clock,  . . 

Jewelry,  Silver.  (See  page  122,) 

Cake  Basket,  Silver,  ........ 

Vase,  Enamelled,  ........ 

Electrotype  Process,  Seven  Diagrams,  .... 

Group — Shepherd,  &c.,  Zinc  Casting,  .... 

Epergne,  Electrotyped, 

Side-board  Dish,  Electrotyped — (Original  in  Louvre,) 

“ Iliad  ” Salver,  do., 

Casket,  Silver  gilt,  . . . . . ... 

Table  Stand,  Metal  gilt, 

Coffee  Urn,  Silver  gilt,  ....... 

Castor,  do.,  ........ 

Vase,  Berlin  Porcelain,  ....... 

Majolica,  Porcelain, 

Vase,  Berlin  Porcelain,  ....... 

Vase,  Porcelain,  ....... 

Vases,  do.,  ....... 

Breakfast  Service,  do., 

Vase  and  Pitcher,  do., 

Vase,  Berlin  do., 

Vase,  do.,  ....... 

Psyche,  Statuette — Parian.  [In  text,]  .... 

Vase — Lily  of  the  Valley,  do.,  .... 

Group — “ First  Whisper  ” &e.,  Parian, 

Vases,  &c.,  Parian,  ........ 

Vases — Limoges  and  Sfevres,  Porcelain,  .... 

Tea  Service,  Porcelain.  [In  text,]  .... 

Tea  Service,  do.  do., 

Vases,  &c.,  Terra  Cotta,  

Architectural  Capital,  Terra  cotta.  [In  text,]  . 
Etruscan  Table  Top,  ........ 

Hanging  Basket.  [In  text,] 

Chandelier,  Glass,  ......... 

Vase,  Glass.  [In  text,]  

Vases,  do.  . . . . . 

Vases  and  Decanter,  Glass.  [In  text,]  .... 
Vases,  &c.,  do., ...... 


PAGE 

126 

129 

130 
134 
136 
140 
143 
149 
158 
172 
179 
181 
184 
186 
188 
189 
191 

193 

194 
196 
202 

204 

205 
207 
214 
221 
223 
230 
232 

232 

233 
235 
239 

244 

245 

246 

247 

248 

249 
258 
264 
271 
277 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XI 


PAGE 

Stained  Window,  Glass, 281 

Stained  Window,  do., 283 

Vase,  Parian.  [In  text,]  284 

American  Cut  and  Pressed  Glass, 285 

Vases— Filigree,  Glass, 291 

Vases,  &c.,  Bohemian  Glass,  ........  297 

Vases,  Cut  Glass.  [In  text,] 299 

Vase  and  Decanter,  Bohemian  Glass, 301 

Console  Table,  Rosewood,  .........  809 

Extension  Table,  Oak,  .........  306 

Swiss  Table  Top,  Light  wood,  carved,  ......  307 

Table  Top,  Porcelain, 307 

Table  Stand,  Carved  wood,  ........  308 

Teacups,  Porcelain, 309 

Teacups,  do.  [In  text,] 310 

Tea  Service,  do., 310 

Do.,  do.  [In  text,]  .........  311 

Vases,  do.,  ..........  313 

Jug,  Parian,  ...........  315 

Pitchers,  Terra  cotta  and  Parian,  .....*.  316 

Coffee-pot  and  Pitcher,  Silver, 317 

Table,  Rosewood, 319 

The  Vintage — Group,  Parian.  [In  text,] 320 

Book-binding — Design  for  Cover.  do., 335 

Vases,  Silver, 344 


■ 

1 


ART- MANUFACTURES. 


♦ ♦ 


CHAPTER  I. 

METALS. 

THE  Metals  are  a class  of  simple  substances,  possessed  of  a 
peculiar  lustre,  having  the  property  of  conducting  heat  and 
electricity  with  great  facility;  but  both  in  their  chemical  and 
physical  properties  they  differ  very  much  from  each  other,  and 
are  consequently  applicable  to  a great  variety  of  uses. 

The  ancients  were  acquainted  with  seven  metals,  and  these 
they  designated  by  the  names  of  the  planets,  and  represented  by 
symbols  supposed  to  have  some  mysterious  allusion  to  those 
bodies.  Gold  was  called  the  Sun,  silver  the  Moon,  mercury  Mer- 
cury, copper  Venus,  iron  Mars,  tin  Jupiter,  and  lead  Saturn.  But 
limited  as  was  their  knowledge  of  the  metals,  they  understood 
the  art  of  working  those  with  which  they  were  familiar,  and  car- 
ried it  to  a degree  hardly  to  be  surpassed  by  the  most  skilful 
artists  of  the  present  day,  assisted  by  the  numerous  inventions  of 
modern  times. 

4 


2 


ART-MANUFACTUEES. 


The  metals  at  present  known  amount  to  fifty-one  in  number, 
and  are  enumerated  in  the  following  table : 


Aluminum, 

* Glucinum,* 

Niobium, 

Tantalum, 

Antimony, 

Gold, 

Norium,* 

Tellurium, 

Arsenic, 

Ilmenium, 

Osmium, 

Terbium,* 

Barium,* 

Iridium, 

Palladium, 

Thorium,* 

Bismuth, 

Iron, 

Pelopium, 

Tin, 

Cadmium, 

Lanthanum,* 

Platinum, 

Titanium, 

Calcium,* 

Lead, 

Potassium,* 

Tungsten, 

Cerium,* 

Lithium,* 

Rhodium, 

Uranium, 

Chromium, 

Magnesium,* 

Ruthenium, 

Vanadium, 

Cobalt, 

Manganese, 

Silicium,* 

Yttrium,* 

Copper, 

Mercury, 

Silver, 

Zinc, 

Didymium, 

* Molybdenum, 

Sodium,* 

Zirconium.* 

Erbium,* 

Nickel, 

Strontium,* 

These  are 

divided  into  two 

classes.  The 

first  consists 

those  which  have  so  great  an  affinity  for  oxygen  that  they  com- 
bine with  it  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
become  rapidly  oxidized,  even  when  protected  from  the  influence 
of  moisture,  and  are  consequently  never  used  in  the  arts  in  an  un- 
combined state.  They  are  marked  in  the  table  above  with  an 
asterisk. 

Those  of  the  above  metals  which  have  been  applied  to  useful 
purposes  are  either  employed  in  combination  with  other  simple 
substances,- or  united  with  acids  in  the  form  of  salts,  and  in  this 
state  furnish  the  arts  with  a most  valuable  series  of  compounds. 
Thus,  those  in  the  first  part  of  the  series,  when  associated  with 
oxygen,  severally  yield  potash,  soda,  baryta,  strontia,  lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  alumina,  which,  either  in  their  uncombined  state,  or 
united  with  acids,  forming  salts,  are  of  hourly  application  to  our 
wants.  The  other  metals  of  this  class  have  not  hitherto  been 
usefully  applied,  which  arises  from  the  circumstance  that  some  of 
them  do  not  occur  in  sufficient  abundance  to  admit  of  their  ad- 
vantageous treatment,  whilst  the  preparation  of  others  is  attended 
with  great  expense,  and  they  are  therefore  replaced  by  bodies 
which  allow  of  being  manufactured  at  a cheaper  rate. 

The  second  class  consists  of  those  metals  which  have  so  slight 
an  affinity  for  oxygen  as  to  be  little  affected  by  it  at  ordinary 


METALS. 


3 


temperatures.  They  comprise  all  those  in  the  table  not  marked 
with  an  asterisk.  They  are  extremely  numerous,  but  in  order  to 
render  them  extensively  applicable  in  an  uncombined  state,  it  is 
necessary  they  should  fill  certain  physical  conditions,  without 
which  they  will  be  of  little  value. 

In  the  first  place  they  must  possess  a certain  tenacity  and 
malleability,  without  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  manufac- 
ture them  into  the  various  forms  they  are  constantly  required  to 
assume.  It  is  also  important  that  the  ores  from  which  they  are 
obtained  should  be  found  in  considerable  quantities,  and  that  the 
extraction  of  the  metal  should  not  be  attended  with  any  extraor- 
dinary difficulty  or  expense,  otherwise  they  could  only  be  em- 
ployed for  special  purposes  for  which  others  were  unfitted,  and 
could  therefore  never  come  into  general  use. 

The  more  brittle  metals  are  seldom  employed  alone,  but  usu- 
ally in  combination^  with  others  possessing  a higher  degree  of 
malleability  and  ductility,  and  thus  alloys  are  frequently  obtained 
which  exhibit  most  remarkable  and  valuable  properties,  combin- 
ing, to  a certain  extent,  the  characteristics  of  the  several  metals 
of  which  they  are  formed. 

The  metals  sufficiently  malleable  to  enable  them  to  be  employed 
in  an  uncombined  state  are  the  following : 


Gold,  Iridium,  Iron, 

Silver,  Mercury,  Cobalt, 

Platinum,  Tin,  Nickel, 

Palladium,  Manganese,  Zinc, 


Cadmium, 

Copper, 

Lead. 


Of  these,  however,  many  have  not  been  employed  in  the  arts ; 
and  this  arises  either  from  the  scarcity  of  the  ores  from  which 
they  are  obtained,  or  from  their  place  being  advantageously  sup- 
plied by  other  metals  which  can  be  procured  at  a cheaper  rate. 

The  metals  that  possess  a great  degree  of  opacity  are  remark- 
able for  a peculiar  lustre,  called  metallic.  All,  however,  are  not 
equally  opaque,  as  gold,  when  reduced  to  extremely  thin  leaves, 
transmits  rays  of  green  light.  Silver  leaf  of  one  hundred  thou- 
sandth of  an  inch  in  thickness  is  perfectly  opaque ; but  very  thin 
leaves  of  an  alloy  of  silver  and  gold  appear  of  a blue  color, 
■when  viewed  by  transmitted  light.  The  lustre  of  metals  is  a con- 


4 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


sequence  of  their  opacity,  and  depends  on  their  power  of  reflect- 
ing light.  When  reduced  to  the  state  of  powder  their  peculiar 
metallic  appearance  disappears ; hut  it  is  immediately  reproduced 
by  rubbing  with  a burnisher,  or  any  other  hard  and  smooth  sub- 
stance. 

Most  of  the  metals,  when  in  a finely  divided  state,  are  of  a 
gray  color ; but  when  consolidated  and  polished,  approach  more 
nearly  to  white.  The  colors  of  some  of  them  are,  however,  very 
decided.  Thus  copper  and  tellurium  are  red ; gold  is  yellow, 
and  lead  is  blue.  The  alloys  usually  possess,  to  a certain  extent, 
the  colors  of  the  metals  of  which  they  are  composed.  Those  re- 
sulting from  the  combination  of  two  or  more  gray  or  white  metals 
will  themselves  be  gray  or  white  ; but  if  a colored  metal  enter 
into  the  combination,  the  alloy  will  assume  its  color  in  a marked 
degree,  although  if  the  proportion  of  the  colored  metal  be  small 
compared  with  the  amount  of  that  which  js  not  colored,  this  is 
not  always  very  apparent. 

The  metals  differ  from  each  other  in  no  respect  more  than 
with  regard  to  hardness.  Those  which  are  pure  are  usually  less 
hard  than  their  alloys,  and  many  of  them  are  so  soft  as  to  admit  of 
being  easily  scratched  with  the  nail,  or  even  moulded  between  the 
fingers.  Titanium  and  manganese  are  harder  than  steel ; plati- 
num, palladium,  copper,  gold,  silver,  tellurium,  bismuth,  cadmium, 
and  tin  are  scratched  by  calc  spar  ; chromium  and  rhodium  scratch 
glass ; nickel,  cobalt,  iron,  antimony  and  zinc  are  scratched  by 
glass ; lead  is  scratched  by  the  nail ; potassium  and  sodium  are 
as  soft  as  wax  at  60°  Fah.,  and  mercury  is  liquid  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature. 

All  the  metals  are  capable  of  assuming,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, the  crystalline  form.  Many  of  them,  particularly 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  bismuth,  occur  crystallized  in  nature, 
and  are  found  in  either  cubes  or  octahedrons,  or  in  some  of  the 
derivative  forms.  Antimony  is,  however,  an  exception  to  the  rule, 
and  affords  rhomboidal  crystals.  In  order  to  crystallize  a metal 
artificially,  it  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  melt  a few  ounces  in  a 
crucible,  and  having  permitted  it  to  cool  on  the  surface,  to  pierce 
the  crust  formed,  and  allow  the  interior  to  flow  out.  By  this 


METALS. 


5 


means  very  beautiful  crystals  of  bismuth  may  be  obtained  ; but 
in  the  case  of  some  of  the  less  fusible  metals,  larger  masses  and 
slower  cooling  are  necessary  to  produce  this  effect. 

It  also  frequently  happens  that  one  metal  may  be  precipitated 
in  a crystalline  form  by  placing  a strip  of  another  metal  in  the 
solution  of  its  salts.  In  this  way  silver  is  deposited  by  mercury, 
and  a piece  of  zinc  placed  in  a solution  of  acetate  of  lead,  precipi- 
tates the  latter  in  feathery  crystals.  Gold  is  occasionally  deposit- 
ed in  this  form  from  its  ethereal  solutions,  and  a stick  of  phosphorus 
produces  the  same  effect.  Nearly  all  the  metals  yield  crystals 
when  deposited  from  their  solutions  by  electric  currents  of  feeble 
intensity. 

When  a piece  of  metal  is  struck  by  a hammer,  it  either  flattens 
under  the  blow  or  splits  with  more  or  less  facility  into  fragments ; 
to  the  former  quality  the  name  of  malleability  is  applied,  whilst 
metals  possessing  the  latter  peculiarity  are  called  brittle.  The 
malleable  metals  may  be  reduced  into  thin  leaves  either  by  the 
hammer  or  by  the  flatting  mill,  an  operation  performed  by  pass- 
ing the  metal  between  heavy  rollers,  which  reduces  it  to  the  re- 
quired thickness.  During  this  artificial  compression  of  the  metals 
their  molecular  structure  rapidly  undergoes  a change,  and  those 
which  at  first  were  soft,  and  passed  readily  through  the  mill  soon 
become  brittle  and  difficult  to  work.  It  is  then  said  to  be  “ rash” 
and  requires  to  be  softened  by  being  heated  to  redness,  and  after- 
wards allowed  to  cool  down  very  gradually  to  the  temperature 
at  which  it  is  worked.  This  process  is  called  annealing. 

Gold  is  the  most  malleable  of  the  metals,  and  is  frequently 
made  into  leaves  of  only  one  two-hundred-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness,  each  grain  of  which  is  found  to  cover  a surface  of 
fifty-four  square  niches.  The  metals  are  arranged  in  the  follow- 
ing list  according  to  their  malleability : 

1 Gold,  4 Tin,  7 Lead,  10  Nickel, 

2 Silver,  5 Cadmium,  8 Zinc,  11  Palladium, 

8 Copper,  6 Platinum,  9 Iron,  18  Sodium, 

14  Frozen  Mercury. 

The  above  metals  are  also  ductile,  or  capable  of  being  drawn  into 
vire  ; but  do  not  possess  this  property  in  the  same  order  as  their 


6 


ART-MANTJFACTUEES. 


malleability.  Wire  is  manufactured  by  passing  an  oblong  piece 
of  metal  through  the  progressive  diminishing  holes  of  a steel  tool, 
called  a draw  plate.  By  this  means  wire  of  almost  any  length 
or  diameter  may  be  obtained,  as  the  metal  takes  the  size  of  the 
last  hole  through  which  it  has  passed.  Silver,  for  the  purposes  of 
embroidery,  is  frequently  made  into  wire  one  five-hundredth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter ; and  a grain  of  gold  may  be  drawn  into  a 
wire  five  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  by  a process  hereafter  to  be 
described.  Platina  wire  has  been  obtained  by  Dr.  W ollaston,  so 
fine  that  thirty  thousand  pieces,  placed  side  by  side  in  contact, 
would  not  cover  more  than  an  inch.  It  would  take  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pieces  of  this  wire,  bound  together,  to  form  a thread  as 
thick  as  a filament  of  raw  silk.  Although  platina  is  known  to  be 
the  heaviest  of  known  bodies,  a mile  of  this  wire  would  not  weigh 
more  than  a grain,  while  seven  ounces  of  it  would  extend  from 
London  to  New  York. 

Platinum  is  a metal  of  a grayish- white  color,  capable  of  receiv- 
ing a very  high  degree  of  polish.  When  perfectly  pure  it  is 
extremely  malleable  and  ductile ; but  the  presence  of  a very 
small  amount  of  foreign  matter  is  sufficient  to  destroy  these 
properties,  and  to  render  it  both  dull  and  brittle.  The  tenacity 
of  pure  platinum  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  iron,  but  ordinary  com- 
mercial specimens  almost  invariably  contain  a certain  proportion 
of  iridium,  by  the  presence  of  which  this  property  is  considerably 
impaired.  This  metal  is  infusible  when  exposed  to  the  strongest 
heat  of  a wind  furnace  ; but  melts  before  the  flame  of  the  oxy- 
hydrogen  blow-pipe,  or  between  the  charcoal  poles  of  a powerful 
galvanic  battery.  Like  iron  it  yields  to  the  hammer,  and  admits 
of  being:  forged  and  welded  at  a white  heat. 

Platinum  is  not  attacked  by  any  of  the  simple  acids,  but  it 
readily  yields  to  the  caustic  alkalies  at  a red  heat,  and  particular- 
ly by  litliia,  though  in  no  way  affected  by  the  alkaline  carbonates, 
even  when  exposed  to  their  action  at  a very  elevated  temperature. 

When  in  an  extremely  divided  state,  platinum  possesses  cer- 
tain remarkable  properties,  which  render  it  of  frequent  employ- 
ment in  the  chemical  laboratory.  When  in  this  form  it  is  known 
by  the  name  of  platinum  black,  and  has  then  the  property  of 


METALS. 


7 


condensing,  to  a most  extraordinary  extent,  the  gases  in  which 
it  is  placed.  In  this  way,  platinum  black  which  has  for  some  time 
been  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  will  condense  around 
it  several  hundred  times  its  volume  of  that  gas,  and  when  brought 
into  contact  with  certain  inflammable  bodies,  causes  their  instant 
ignition.  If,  for  example,  a drop  of  absolute  alcohol  be  let  fall 
upon  a small  lump  of  this  substance,  which  has  thus  been  exposed 
in  the  presence  of  oxygen  gas,  it  is  at  once  inflamed,  and  the 
whole  mass  of  the  metal  instantly  becomes  incandescent. 

Platinum  was  not  imported  into  Europe  until  the  middle  of 
the  last  century,  although  known  for  a long  period  previous  to  that 
time  in  America,  under  the  name  of  platina , which  signifies,  in 
Spanish,  little  silver , and  was  even  then,  from  the  great  difficulty 
experienced  in  working  it,  of  comparatively  little  value.  It  is 
invariably  found  in  a native  state,  and  occurs  in  alluvial  deposits 
similar  to  those  from  which  gold  is  obtained.  It  generally  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  small  flattened  grains,  of  a grayish-white 
color,  approaching  that  of  tarnished  steel.  Their  size  varies  from 
linseed  to  that  of  hemp  seed ; but  a few  fragments  of  much  larger 
dimensions  have  occasionally  been  discovered.  The  Royal  Mu- 
seum of  Madrid  possesses  a specimen,  found  in  the  gold  mine  of 
Condola,  South  America,  which  is  as  large  as  a turkey’s  egg,  and 
weighs  seventy-six  hundred  grains.  The  largest  specimen  yet 
discovered  weighs  twenty-one  pounds,  and  is  in  the  cabinet  of 
Count  Demidoffi  The  grains  are  separated  from  gold  either  by 
hand-picking  or  amalgamation.  From  an  apprehension  that  this 
metal  might  be  employed  for  the  purpose  of  debasing  gold,  it 
was  formerly  thrown  into  the  rivers,  with  a view  of  preventing 
fraud,  by  which  means  large  quantities  of  this  valuable  metal 
have  been  lost. 

Platinum  is  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
chemical  instruments,  and  for  the  negative  element  in  galvanic 
batteries.  Large  platinum  vessels  are  likewise  used  by  gold  re- 
finers, and  platinum  stills,  for  the  concentration  of  sulphuric  acid, 
have  at  the  present  day  almost  entirely  superseded  those  of  blown 
glass. 

There  is  a great  difference  in  the  fusibility  of  metals.  While 


8 


AET-MAISTUFACTURES. 


platinum,  iridium,  rhodium,  and  some  others,  require  to  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  flame  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe,  potassium 
and  sodium  fuse  below  the  boiling  point  of  water.  Tin  melts  at 
about  440°,  Fahr.,  lead  at  612°,  and  antimony  at  about  850°. 
Gold,  silver,  and  copper,  require  a cherry-red  heat ; iron,  nickel, 
and  cobalt,  fuse  at  a white  heat ; manganese  and  palladium  are 
melted  only  by  the  strongest  heat  of  a wind  furnace  ; chromium, 
uranium,  and  some  others,  are  but  slightly  affected  when  treated 
in  the  same  way,  while  mercury  retains  its  liquid  form  during 
the  most  intense  cold  of  our  climate. 

Some  of  the  metals  transmit  heat  with  greater  facility  than 
others,  and  are,  consequently,  well  adapted  for  the  manufacturing 
purposes  where  it  is  of  importance  that  the  heat  acquired  by  the 
metallic  surfaces  should  be  readily  communicated  to  surrounding 
bodies.  Gold  has  this  power  in  the  highest  degree ; silver  and 
copper  follow  in  order ; iron  has  the  fourth  place ; and  zinc,  tin, 
and  lead  in  order ; but  in  the  power  of  expansion  under  the  in- 
fluence of  heat,  lead  surpasses  both  tin  and  zinc.  All  the  metals 
are  probably  more  or  less  volatile,  although  a certain  number  of 
them  only  admit  of  being  readily  converted  into  vapor  at  the 
highest  temperature  of  our  furnaces  ; such  are  zinc,  cadmium, 
mercury,  arsenic,  antimony,  tellurium,  potassium,  and  sodium. 
Several  others  have  the  property  of  communicating  characteristic 
colors  to  flames,  and  are  therefore  evidently  volatile  to  a small 
extent. 

Elasticity  and  sonorousness  are  attributes  of  the  harder  metals 
only,  and  are  more  conspicuous  in  some  of  their  alloys  than  in 
the  metals  themselves.  Steel  and  aluminum,  in  a pure  state, 
possess  both  these  qualities.  The  tone  of  aluminum  is  pure,  and 
its  vibrations  are  of  an  extraordinary  duration.  This  quality  has 
led  to  its  use  for  bells,  the  tone  of  which  is  more  agreeable  than 
that  of  the  finest  bell  metal. 

Aluminum  is  the  most  remarkable  of  the  more  recent  dis- 
coveries ; unquestionably  it  is  the  most  important  of  these,  and 
on  many  accounts  the  most  interesting.  It  was  known  to  exist 
as  far  back  as  1827,  though  all  attempts  to  produce  it  in  a metallic 
form  failed  till  1847.  Even  then  it  was  supposed  to  exist  only  in 


METALS. 


9 


small  quantities,  and  was  esteemed  rather  as  a curiosity  than  for 
any  useful  purposes ; but  it  can  now  be  produced  without  limit 
as  to  supply,  and  it  will  yet  be  so  low  in  price  as  to  take  the 
place  of  iron  and  copper  for  many  articles  of  daily  use.  At  first 
the  price  was  that  of  gold ; now  it  may  be  had  for  one  fourth 
that  of  silver : and  as  it  is  rapidly  and  cheaply  produced,  its  mar- 
ket Aralue  will  gradually  diminish,  and  at  the  same  time  its  quali- 
ties will  become  known,  so  that  it  will  grow  into  favor. 

Aluminum  is  named  from  its  occurrence  as  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients of  alum.  The  most  common  clays  contain  about  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  this  metal,  which,  when  obtained,  possesses  most 
curious  properties.  In  color,  it  is  tin-white ; it  is  unaffected  by 
the  air,  and  is  so  completely  inoxidizable  that  it  resists  the  action 
of  the  air  in  a muffle  heated  to  the  temperature  at  which  gold  is 
assayed,  and  at  a heat  at  which  lead  burns  and  litharge  melts  it 
remains  unaffected.  It  is  unattacked  by  any  ordinary  acid,  ex- 
cept muriatic  acid,  which,  and  the  alkalies,  seem  to  be  the  only 
chemical  enemies.  It  cannot  be  alloyed  with  mercury,  and  scarcely 
takes  the  least  trace  of  lead.  Electricity  it  conducts  eight  times 
better  than  iron,  consequently  as  well  as,  if  not  better  than, 
silver.  It  is  very  malleable,  and  when  rolled  and  hammered  be- 
comes as  hard  as  iron,  a most  invaluable  quality  possessed  by  no 
other  metal  in  use ; and  as  it  melts  at  a lower  temperature  than 
silver,  it  possesses  all  the  most  valuable  qualities  required  by  the 
workman. 

At  first  it  was  supposed  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  alloy 
aluminum  with  any  other  metal,  but  recent  experiments  prove 
that  it  forms  alloys  with  zinc,  copper,  silver,  and  tin.  With 
copper  it  gives  a very  hard  and  white  alloy,  even  where  there  is 
twenty-five  per  cent  of  copper  in  the  mixture.  These  alloys  are 
fusible  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  but  all  melt  at  a lower  tem- 
perature than  aluminum.  The  alloy  with  copper  is  extremely 
hard  and  brittle ; it  scratches  glass,  and  can  be  fractured  by  a 
blow  from  a hammer. 

But  the  most  remarkable  quality  of  aluminum  is  its  light- 
ness, in  which  respect  it  stands  above  all  other  bodies  of  the 
metallic  class  that  are  in  use.  The  lightest  of  these  is  zinc,  which 
1* 


10 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


is  seven  times  heavier  than  water;  iron  is  nearly  eight  times 
heavier ; silver  is  nearly  ten  and  a half  times,  and  gold  twenty 
times ; whereas  aluminum  is  little  more  than  twice  and  a half 
times  as  heavy  as  that  fluid,  and  consequently  it  is  only  about 
one-quarter  the  weight  of  silver.  An  ounce  of  it  will  go  as  far 
as  four  ounces  of  silver  or  eight  ounces  of  gold.  Constant  expo- 
sure and  daily  use  have  no  effect  on  its  brilliant  surface,  for  it 
never  tarnishes,  and  the  time  will  probably  come  when  it  will  be 
employed  for  articles  of  the  most  ordinary  use.  The  supply  will 
be  inexhaustible,  for  every  clay  bank  can  be  made  to  yield  it ; 
the  qualities  it  is  already  known  to  possess  will  render  it  an  ob- 
ject of  attention,  and  commerce  will  look  to  it  that  the  supply 
equals  the  demand. 

All  the  metals  may  be  made  to  combine  with  oxygen,  although 
their  affinities  for  this  body  are  extremely  different.  Some  of 
them  combine  with  it  at  all  temperatures,  and  can  only  be  re- 
duced to  the  metallic  state  with  great  difficulty ; whilst  others 
possess  so  little  affinity  for  this  metal  that  they  cannot  be  made 
to  combine  directly  with  it,  and  a slight  elevation  of  temperature 
is  sufficient  to  effect  a separation. 

When  a metal  unites  with  oxygen,  the  combination  is  usually 
attended  with  heat ; if  the  action  be  very  rapid,  combustion, 
together  with  intense  light,  is  frequently  the  result.  The  com- 
bustion of  the  metals  in  oxygen  gas  goes  on  most  rapidly  when 
they  are  reduced  to  the  state  of  powder  previous  to  being  sub- 
jected to  its  action,  as  in  many  instances  the  coating  of  oxide  at 
first  formed  quickly  prevents  further  change.  For  this  reason  a 
stout  copper-wire,  if  heated  to  redness,  and  immersed  in  a jar  of 
oxygen,  rapidly  becomes  covered  with  a coating  of  oxide,  which 
quickly  protects  the  metal  from  further  action ; but  if  copper 
filings  be  treated  in  the  same  way  they  instantly  ignite,  and  be- 
come converted  into  oxide  of  copper.  If  the  oxide  produced 
by  the  ignition  of  a metal  in  the  gas  is  fusible  at  the  tenqDerature 
obtained  by  its  combustion,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  reduce  it  to 
powder,  as  the  continual  melting  of  the  oxide  constantly  exjmses 
a clean  metallic  surface  to  the  further  action  of  oxygen.  For 
this  reason,  iron  and  steel,  previously  heated  to  redness,  and 


METAXS. 


11 


immersed  in  a jar  of  oxygen,  burn  with  great  violence,  even 
when  exposed  in  large  masses. 

The  volatile  metals,  when  similarly  treated,  burn  with  great 
rapidity,  as  the  first  application  of  heat  gives  rise  to  the  produc- 
tion of  vapors  which  are  quickly  consumed,  and  as  rapidly  re- 
placed by  another  portion  generated  by  the  heat  produced  from 
the  combustion  of  the  first.  Many  of  the  metals  may  be  kept 
indefinitely  exposed  at  ordinary  temperatures,  to  the  action  of 
perfectly  dry  oxygen  without  combination ; but  if  moisture  be 
admitted,  chemical  action  is  at  once  set  up,  and  the  metal  rapidly 
oxidized.  The  polish  of  a bar  of  iron  is  not  impaired  by  being 
kept  in  a jar  of  dry  oxygen,  but  a moist  atmosphere  soon  pro- 
duces a deposit  of  oxide  which  rapidly  increases,  and  finally 
destroys  it.  In  the  case  of  some  of  the  metals,  such  as  zinc,  the 
coating  formed  is  very  superficial,  and  serves  to  protect  its  sur- 
face from  further  action.  The  oxidation  of  many  of  the  other 
metals,  on  the  contrary,  goes  on  after  a certain  time  has  elapsed 
with  greater  rapidity  than  at  the  commencement  of  the  action. 
This  arises  from  the  coating  of  oxide  formed  being  in  an  electro- 
negative state  with  regard  to  the  unoxidized  metal,  and  a vol- 
taic pair  is  thus  established,  which  continues  in  action  as  long  as 
there  is  any  portion  of  unoxidized  metal  remaining. 

The  presence  of  acid  vapors  in  the  air  very  much  accelerates 
the  oxidation  of  the  metals.  When  a piece  of  iron  is  acted  upon 
by  a humid  atmosphere,  it  is  attacked  by  oxygen  dissolved  in 
the  watery  vapor,  and  as  the  oxide  of  iron  formed  possesses  a 
certain  basic  affinity  for  water,  the  action  is  thereby  increased. 
In  this  way  iron  and  zinc,  which  do  not  decompose  water  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  and  may  be  indefinitely  preserved  in  that 
fluid  when  deprived  of  its  dissolved  oxygen  by  boiling,  are,  by 
the  addition  of  a few  drops  of  sulphuric,  or  any  other  strong  acid, 
rapidly  attacked.  The  affinity  of  the  metal  for  oxygen  is  thus 
mcreased,  and  the  oxide  formed  at  once  combines  with  the  acid 
present,  giving  rise  to  a soluble  salt,  which  being  dissolved  in  the 
water,  constantly  leaves  a clean  metallic  surface  to  be  in  its  turn 
converted  into  oxide. 

The  metals,  with  but  few  exceptions,  are  capable  of  combin- 


12 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


ing  with  each  other,  and  thereby  forming  a class  of  compounds 
possessing  more  or  less  the  properties  of  their  several  constit- 
uents. Alloys  are  generally  more  fusible  and  harder  than  the 
metals  which  enter  into  their  composition ; and  as  these  proper- 
ties may  be  regulated  according  to  the  relative  amount  of  the 
various  metals  employed,  an  indefinite  number  of  modifications 
may  be  thus  attained.  Copper  is  very  malleable  and  ductile,  but 
is  difficult  to  fuse,  and  for  many  purposes  does  not  possess  the 
requisite  hardness.  In  many  instances  these  defects  may  be 
obviated  by  the  addition  of  one-third  of  its  weight  of  zinc,  which, 
without  much  impairing  its  malleability,  renders  it  fusible, 
brightens  its  color,  and  at  the  same  time  communicates  to  it  a 
proper  degree  of  hardness.  In  the  manufacture  of  cannon,  a 
mixture  is  required  not  only  sufficiently  hard  to  withstand  the 
friction  of  the  shot  during  its  passage  through  it,  but  also  capa- 
ble of  resisting  the  corrosive  action  of  the  products  arising  from 
the  combustion  of  gunpowder.  It  should  likewise  possess  con- 
siderable toughness,  without  which  the  gun  would  be  liable  to 
burst.  In  many  cases,  and  particularly  for  battery  use,  cast  iron 
is  used ; but  when  guns  are  required  to  be  moved  from  place  to 
place,  the  brittleness  of  that  metal  becomes  a serious  objection, 
as,  unless  made  very  thick  and  heavy,  they  would  not  be  capable 
of  withstanding  the  explosive  force  to  which  they  are  subjected. 
If  copper  were  employed,  it  would  in  the  first  place  be  extremely 
difficult  to  mould,  as,  from  the  high  temperature  required  for  the 
fusion  of  that  metal,  it  is  liable  to  chill  and  produce  air  holes  in 
the  casting ; and  in  the  second,  would  soon  wear  out,  if  made, 
from  the  rebound  of  the  shot  in  passing  from  the  breech  to  the 
muzzle  during  the  discharge. 

By  the  addition  of  ten  parts  of  tin  to  ninety  parts  of  copper, 
an  alloy  is  obtained  which  answers  all  these  conditions,  and  is 
also  used  under  the  name  of  bronze  (to  which  due  reference  will 
be  had  hereafter),  for  the  manufacture  of  statues,  and  for  various 
other  ornamental  purposes. 

For  printing  types,  an  alloy  is  required,  at  the  same  time 
hard  and  fusible,  and  which  does  not  materially  contract  in  cool- 
ing. Lead,  which  is  a fusible  metal,  is  evidently  unfitted  for 


METALS. 


13 


this  purpose  by  its  softness,  whilst  zinc  and  bismuth  are  too 
liable  to  break  under  the  pressure  to  which  the  types  are  exposed 
in  the  process  of  printing.  By  combining,  however,  twenty  parts 
of  antimony  and  eight  of  lead,  an  alloy  is  produced  which  fulfils 
all  these  conditions,  and  furnishes  us  at  a cheap  rate  with  a mate- 
rial admirably  adapted  for  the  purposes  intended. 

It  has  long  been  a disputed  question,  whether  the  alloys  are 
chemical  combinations  of  metals  in  definite  proportions  or  merely 
mechanical  mixtures,  without  regard  to  their  atomic  relations. 
It  is,  however,  probable  that  they  are,  in  all  cases,  combined  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  chemical  affinity. 

Alloys  are  generally  more  oxidizable  than  their  constituents 
taken  singly.  This  probably  arises  from  the  circumstance  of  one 
of  the  metals  being  electro-negative  with  respect  to  the  other,  by 
which  means  electric  action  is  set  up  and  the  more  positive 
metals  oxidized. 

The  action  of  acids  on  alloys  varies  according  to  the  relative 
amount  of  their  constituents.  Silver  alloyed  with  a large  quantity 
of  gold  is  protected  from  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  by  which, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  is  rapidly  attacked.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  reverse  of  this  takes  place,  and  metals  which  are 
totally  insoluble  in  certain  menstrua,  are  made  to  dissolve  in 
them  by  the  addition  of  a metal  on  which  they  have  the  power  of 
acting.  In  this  way,  platinum,  although  of  itself  insoluble  in 
nitric  acid,  may  be  dissolved  by  it  when  sufficiently  alloyed  with 
silver.  Alloys  consisting  of  two  metals,  the  one  easily  oxidiza- 
ble, the  other  possessing  a less  affinity  for  that  element,  may  be 
readily  decomposed  by  the  combined  action  of  heat  and  air.  In 
this  cause  the  former  metal  will  be  rapidly  converted  into  an 
oxide,  except  perhaps  the  last  portion,  which  may,  in  some  de- 
gree, be  protected  from  further  action  by  the  oxide  already 
formed.  The  increased  affinity  for  oxygen  exhibited  by  the  more 
oxidizable  metal,  in  presence  of  another  less  affected  by  this 
agent,  is  doubtless  an  electric  phenomenon,  and  action  is  in 
many  cases  so  rapid  as  to  produce  combustion.  This  occurs 
when  an  alloy  of  three  parts  of  lead  and  one  of  tin  is  heated  in 
contact  with  air. 


14 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Some  of  the  less  oxidizable  metals  are  occasionally  found  in 
the  malleable  or  native  state,  although  the  larger  number  even 
of  those  are  commonly  associated  with  one  or  more  of  the  non- 
metallic  elements,  such  as  oxygen,  sulphur,  or  arsenic.  By  far 
the  greater  portion  of  the  metals  are,  however,  met  with  in 
combination  with  one  or  other  of  the  three  elements  above  men- 
tioned, and  are  then  said  to  be  mineralized.  The  resulting 
compounds  are  called  minerals,  and  when  these  can  be  employed 
in  the  arts  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  the  metals  which  they 
contain,  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  ores.  Thus  a copper 
ore,  or  lead  ore,  means  any  natural  combination  of  these  metals 
with  other  bodies  in  such  proportion  that  the  resulting  compound 
admits  of  being  advantageously  treated  for  the  metal  it  contains. 
Many  of  the  metallic  ores,  instead  of  being  compounds  of  two 
or  more  simple  substances,  consist  of  natural  metalliferous  salts, 
and  of  these  the  carbonates,  silicates,  sulphates,  and  phosphates, 
are  among  the  most  common  examples.  Among  the  metals  oc- 
curring in  nature  in  a free  state,  are  gold,  platinum,  rhodium, 
iridium,  palladium,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  antimony,  and  bis- 
muth. The  following  metals  are  almost  invariably  found  in  com- 
bination with  other  substances : manganese,  iron,  cobalt,  nickel, 
chromium,  tungsten,  molybdenum,  vanadium,  zinc,  cadmium, 
lead,  tin,  titanium,  and  uranium. 

Although  mineral  substances  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the 
form  of  crystals,  they  occur  with  much  greater  frequency  in  the 
state  of  masses  possessing  little  or  no  trace  of  crystalline  arrange- 
ment. These  massive  minerals  consist  either  of  grains  more  or 
less  minute,  of  leaves  or  laminse,  or  of  small  columns  or  fibres. 
In  the  first  case,  the  structure  is  said  to  be  granular , in  the  sec- 
ond lamellar , and  in  the  third  fibrous  or  columnar. 

When  the  structure  of  a granular  mineral  is  rough,  it  is  said 
to  be  coarsely  granular , as  in  some  varieties  of  marbles.  When 
the  grains  are  fine,  it  is  finely  granular , as  in  granular  quartz ; 
and  if  the  grains  are  so  excessively  fine  as  not  to  be  detected, 
the  structure  is  said  to  be  impalpable , as  in  the  case  of  the  chal- 
cedony. 

Minerals  are  possessed  of  four  different  kinds  of  fracture ; 


METALS. 


15 


these  are  severally  termed  conchoidal , hackly , even , and  uneven . 
When  a substance  breaks  with  a convex  and  concave  surface,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  flint,  its  fracture  is  conchoidal.  When  the 
elevations  are  sharp  and  uneven,  as  in  broken  iron,  it  is  hackly. 
If  the  surface  is  nearly  flat,  its  structure  is  said  to  be  even  / and 
it  is  said  to  be  uneven  when  the  surfaces  are  subject  to  various 
elevations  and  depressions. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  is  in  many  localities  traversed  by 
clefts  or  fissures,  probably  produced  by  great  convulsions  of 
nature  which  have  occurred  in  remote  ages.  These  are  some- 
times found  to  be  filled  by  the  trachytic  or  porphyritic  rocks,  by 
the  injection  of  which  the  fissures  were  formed,  whilst  in  other 
instances  they  contain  various  metals,  either  in  a free  state,  or  in 
different  forms  of  combination.  In  the  former  case  these  forma- 
tions are  called  dykes , but  when  they  contain  metallic  ores  they 
are  called  mineral  veins. 

Mineral  veins  are  often  nearly  perpendicular  in  their  direction, 
although  they  sometimes  possess  considerable  inclination.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  a vein  may  be  regarded  as  a plane,  of  which  the 
extension,  in  length  and  depth,  is  unknown,  as  the  former  is 
usually  bounded  by  a contraction  too  small  to  induce  the  miner 
to  follow  it,  and  the  latter  is  frequently  greater  than  that  of  the 
deepest  mine.  It  seldom  happens  that  an  isolated  vein  is  found 
in  any  particular  locality,  and  with  but  few  exceptions  where  ore 
has  been  discovered,  others  may  safely  be  inferred  to  be  at  no 
considerable  distance. 

It  is  often  found  that  all  the  veins  of  the  same  locality  have  a 
nearly  similar  direction;  and  if  two  distinct  systems  of  lodes 
should  occur  in  the  same  neighborhood,  those  running  in  one 
direction,  if  metalliferous,  yield  a different  metal  from  those 
which  do  not  follow  the  same  course.  The  veins  containing  the 
metallic  ores  are  called  lodes , and  those  which  are  not  productive 
in  metal,  and  are  not  in  the  usual  direction  of  the  lodes  of  the 
district,  are  cross-courses  / the  dip  or  inclination  of  the  vein  to 
wards  the  horizon  is  its  hade , slope , or  underlie  / and  its  inter- 
section with  the  surface  constitutes  what  is  called  its  run  or  direct 
tion.  Strings  are  small  filaments  into  which  the  vein  sometimes 


16 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


splits,  and  of  t>hese,  those  which  are  very  small  are  sometimes 
called  threads. 

The  composition  of  mineral  deposits  appears  to  be  affected  some- 
what by  the  nature  of  the  rock  through  which  they  pass,  as  certain 
minerals  are  found  to  exist  in  large  quantities  in  the  portion  of  a 
lode  which  passes  through  one  kind  of  rock,  whilst  in  another  of 
a different  composition  they  are  either  of  unfrequent  occurrence 
or  entirely  absent.  As  a general  rule,  those  veins  are  found 
most  productive  which  are  situated  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  junction  of  two  different  species  of  rock.  In  Corn- 
wall, where  a large  portion  of  the  mineral  riches  of  Great 
Britain  are  extracted,  all  the  most  productive  mines  are  situated 
near  the  point  of  meeting  of  the  granite  Tcillas , or  clay-slate. 

Besides  these  more  ancient  formations  of  mineral  ores,  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  valleys  in  the  neighborhood  of  metal- 
liferous rocks  have,  in  the  course  of  a long  series  of  years,  become 
partially  filled  by  sands  washed  from  the  surrounding  mountains, 
and  which  are  found  to  contain  a portion  of  the  metallic  riches 
of  the  hills  of  which  they  once  formed  a part.  In  some  districts 
such  deposits  are  extremely  common,  and  afford,  by  washing, 
large  quantities  of  various  metals.  In  Cornwall,  most  of  the 
valleys  in  the  tin  districts  yield  sands  containing  the  peroxide  of 
that  metal.  In  the  island  of  Banca,  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
large  quantities  of  tin  ore  are  thus  obtained,  and  the  extent  to 
which  such  operations  are  carried  on  may  be  imagined  when  it  is 
stated  that  as  much  as  thirty-five  hundred  tons  of  this  metal  have 
been  annually  exported  from  that  island. 

From  long  exposure  to  oxidizing  influences,  the  ores  thus 
obtained  are  perfectly  free  from  sulphur  and  arsenic,  and  for  this 
reason  are  exclusively  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  finer 
varieties  of  grain  tin.  In  other  cases,  gold  in  the  virgin  state  is 
distributed  in  small  grains  in  these  sands,  and  this  is,  in  fact,  one 
of  the  chief  sources  of  that  metal.  The  sifting  and  washing  of 
such  sands  furnish  to  Russia  nearly  all  the  gold  produced  in 
that  empire,  which  annually  amounts  to  about  fifteen  thousand 
pounds  weight.  Russia  also  obtains  by  the  same  means  an  annual 
supply  of  nearly  five  thousand  pounds  weight  of  platinum,  which 


METALS. 


17 


is  almost  entirely  extracted  from  the  streams  flowing  from  the 
Altai  mountains,  which  separate  Siberia  from  Tartary.  The  gold 
that  Africa  yields  is  in  the  form  of  dust,  gathered  from  the 
mountain  streams ; and  from  the  sands  of  the  mountain  streams 
of  California,  the  miners  have  washed  an  extraordinary  amount 
of  gold. 

The  mineral  riches  of  a country  are  frequently  discovered  by 
attentively  observing  the  fragments  brought  down  by  the  action 
of  water  from  the  hills  into  the  valleys ; and  on  tracing  these  to 
their  several  sources,  the  veins  from  which  they  were  originally 
detached,  are,  in  many  instances,  found.  Water  also  acts  in 
another  way  a very  important  part  in  the  disclosure  of  mineral 
veins,  as  by  closely  examining  the  faces  of  the  different  gullies 
and  ravines,  which  intersect  a country,  a ready  means  is  afforded 
of  ascertaining  whether  its  strata  are  traversed  by  metalliferous 
deposits. 

If  the  substance  of  a mineral  vein  be  harder  than  the  rock  in 
which  it  occurs,  the  latter  is  sometimes,  by  the  alternate  action 
of  air  and  water,  gradually  removed,  whilst  the  lode  itself  re- 
mains as  a sort  of  natural  ridge  across  the  country.  But  when 
these  means  of  observation  are  not  available,  it  is  necessary  to 
examine  the  nature  of  a district  through  the  medium  of  artificial 
excavations. 

When  a lode  has  been  discovered,  and  is  found  to  yield  a 
metal,  or  presents  appearances  from  which  it  may  be  inferred 
likely  to  prove  productive  at  a greater  depth,  the  first  operation, 
if  the  conformation  of  the  locality  admits  of  it,  is  usually  to  drive 
an  adit  level.  This  is  a gallery  cut  a little  above  the  surface  of  the 
nearest  valley,  in  such  a way  as  to  intersect  the  lode  at  a certain 
distance  from  the  surface,  and  draw  the  water  from  the  higher 
portion  of  the  vein.  Should  the  appearance  of  the  vein  prove 
favorable,  a pit  or  shaft  is  sunk  in  such  a position  that  it  may 
intersect  the  lode  at  a proper  distance  from  the  surface,  and 
serve  as  a means  not  only  of  extracting  its  minerals,  but  also  of 
ascent  and  descent  of  the  miners  employed.  For  this  purpose  a 
windlass  is  mounted  on  the  shaft,  and  is  placed  on  a strong  stage 
of  wood,  and  by  the  aid  of  this  and  a long  rope,  two  buckets 


18 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


or  kibbles  are  made  to  alternately  ascend  and  descend  in  the 
pit. 

The  tools  employed  by  the  miner  necessarily  vary  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  rocks  which  he  has  to  traverse.  If  the 
ground  he  moderately  soft,  nothing  hut  an  ordinary  pick  and 
shovel  are  used ; hut  if  it  he  hard,  and  is  either  stratified  or  con- 
tains numerous  fissures,  he  has  recourse  to  steel  wedges  or  points 
called  gads , hy  driving  which  into  the  crevices  of  the  rock,  he  is 
enabled  to  split  off  larger  portions  than  he  could  detach  hy  the 
use  of  the  pick  alone.  When  the  ground  to  he  cut  through  does 
not  admit  of  being  thus  broken,  the  working  is  effected  by  the 
assistance  of  gunpowder. 

On  reaching  the  surface,  the  ores  are  broken  hy  large  ham- 
mers, and  divided  into  classes  according  to  their  relative  richness 
in  metal,  whilst  the  unproductive  portions  are  picked  out  and 
rejected.  Few  ores  contain  so  large  an  amount  of  metal  as  to 
render  their  concentration  hy  mechanical  means  unnecessary. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  fragments  of  mineral  ores,  and  par- 
ticularly those  of  copper,  to  a proper  size  for  their  subsequent 
mechanical  concentration,  large  cylinders  of  cast  iron,  moving  in 
contrary  directions,  are  frequently  employed.  The  ore  to  he 
crushed  is  allowed  to  fall  gradually  between  the  two  rollers, 
through  a hopper,  and  on  passing  through,  the  crushed  ores  fall 
into  the  higher  extremity  of  an  inclined  cylinder  of  coarse  wire 
gauze,  where  it  is  properly  sifted.  Many  minerals,  and  especially 
the  ores  of  tin,  instead  of  being  crushed  hy  rollers  as  above 
described,  are  pounded  into  small  fragments  by  large  pestles, 
moved  either  by  water  or  steam  power. 

Thus  prepared,  the  ores  are  repeatedly  washed  till  all  the 
worthless  matter  is  removed,  and  having  been  roasted,  to  expel 
the  sulphur  and  arsenic  which  they  may  contain,  they  are  passed 
through  two  distinct  operations — the  reduction  of  the  oxide  to 
the  metallic  state,  and  the  separation  of  the  earthy  matter  in 
form  of  scoria. 


CHAPTER  II. 


IRON. 


F all  the  metals  that  man  has  drawn  from  the  earth,  and  appro- 


priated to  his  own  use,  that  to  which  we  now  call  attention 
must  unquestionably  take  rank ; for  on  iron  we  depend  for  arti- 
cles beyond  number,  and  all  of  which  are  essential  to  our  com- 
fort and  convenience ; and  were  we  called  upon  to  forego  the 
use  of  it,  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  all  the  metals  desig- 
nated as  “ precious,”  would  be  cheerfully  resigned,  if  this  alone 
were  spared  to  us. 

When  iron  was  first  dug  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth  and 
converted  into  instruments  of  the  chase  or  domestic  utensils,  we 
have  no  means  of  knowing,  for  the  early  history  of  the  world  is 
wanting  in  such  details.  To  kill  a man  with  an  instrument  of 
iron  was  punishable  with  death  under  the  Mosaic  law.  Moses 
has  recorded  of  Og,  king  of  Basan,  that  he  had  a bedstead  of 
iron,  that  was  nine  cubits  in  length  and  four  in  breadth.  And 
when  he  reminded  the  Israelites  that  the  Lord  had  brought  them 
out  of  the  iron  furnace,  even  the  land  of  Egypt,  he  promised  to 
bring  them  into  a land  whose  stones  were  iron,  and  out  of  the 
hills  they  might  dig  brass.  The  Greeks  ascribed  the  discovery 
of  iron  to  themselves.  The  Romans  knew  not  how  to  provide 
their  iron  furnaces  with  bellows,  and,  to  ignite  the  fuel,  placed 
the  grate  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind.  As  a substi- 
tute for  it  in  their  armor,  they  employed  bronze.  The  more 
northern  nations  used  iron,  but  sparingly ; their  weapons  were 


20 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


made  of  copper,  and  even  of  gold,  with  a thin  strip  of  iron  at- 
tached to  form  a cutting  edge.  Caesar,  when  he  invaded  Britain, 
found  the  inhabitants  in  the  possession  of  rings  and  money  of 
iron,  but  who  shall  say  whether  the  iron  was  of  their  own  forg- 
ing, or  was  received  from  the  Phoenicians  in  barter  for  tin  ? The 
Hottentots  have  long  understood  the  art  of  smelting  both  iron 
and  copper,  in  a conical  furnace  of  clay.  Iron  ore  is  found  in 
Africa  in  immense  quantities;  and  in  their  rude  way,  the  un- 
taught natives  form  various  useful  and  ornamental  articles, 
such  as  spears,  arrowheads,  knives,  armlets,  bracelets,  &c.,  and  a 
small  but  regular  amount  of  this  important  material,  made  into 
a peculiar  shape  and  called  a “ bar,”  appears  to  be  the  standard 
of  value  by  which  their  currency  is  regulated. 

In  England,  iron  was  first  cast  in  Sussex,  in  1543.  In  1740,  the 
total  amount  of  iron  produced  in  England,  was  17,350  tons.  At 
that  time  the  annual  product  of  Europe  was  about  100,000  tons, 
60,000  of  which  came  from  the  furnaces  of  Sweden  and  Russia. 
Row  Great  Britain  produces  annually  3,585,000  tons,  and  the 
whole  product  of  the  world  may  be  set  down  at  7,000,000  tons, 
of  which  the  United  States  produce  one-seventh. 

A bar  of  iron,  valued  at  five  dollars,  worked  into  horseshoes, 
is  worth  ten  dollars  and  a half ; into  needles,  three  hundred  and 
fifty-five  dollars ; pen-knife  blades,  three  thousand  two  hundred 
and  eighty-five  dollars  ; shirt-buttons,  twenty-nine  thousand  four 
hundred  and  eighty ; and  balance  springs  for  watches,  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  Thirty-one  pounds  of  iron  have 
been  worked  into  wire  one  hundred  and  eleven  miles  in  length, 
and  so  fine  was  the  fabric  that  a portion  of  it  was  converted,  in 
lieu  of  horse-hair,  into  a barrister’s  wig. 

The  usefulness  of  iron  is  thus  set  forth  by  Edward  Everett : 
“ I have  now  in  my  hand  a gold  watch,  which  combines  embellish- 
ment and  utility  in  happy  proportions,  and  is  often  considered  a 
very  valuable  appendage  to  the  person  of  a gentleman.  Its 
hands,  face,  chain,  and  case,  are  of  chased  and  burnished  gold. 
Its  gold  seals  sparkle  with  the  ruby,  topaz,  sapphire,  emerald. 
I open  it,  and  find  that  the  works,  without  which  this  elegantly 
furnished  case  would  be  a mere  shell — those  hands  motionless, 


IKON. 


21 


and  those  figures  without  meaning — are  made  of  brass.  Investi- 
gating further,  I ask  what  is  the  spring,  by  which  all  these  are 
put  in  motion,  made  of?  I am  told  it  is  made  of  steel!  I ask 
what  is  steel  ? The  reply  is  that  it  is  iron  which  has  undergone 
a certain  process.  So,  then,  I find  the  main-spring,  without 
which  the  watch  would  always  be  motionless,  and  its  hands, 
figures,  and  embellishments,  but  toys,  is  not  of  gold,  (that  is  not 
sufficiently  good,)  nor  of  brass,  (that  would  not  do,)  but  of  iron. 
Iron,  therefore,  is  the  only  precious  metal ! and  this  watch  an 
emblem  of  society.  Its  hands  and  figures,  which  tell  the  hour, 
resemble  the  master  spirit  of  the  age,  to  whose  movement  every 
eye  is  directed.  Its  useless  but  sparkling  seals,  sapphires,  rubies, 
topazes,  and  embellishments,  are  the  aristocracy.  Its  works  of 
brass  are  the  middle  class,  by  the  increasing  intelligence  and 
power  of  which,  the  master  spirits  of  the  age  are  moved ; and 
its  iron  main-spring,  shut  up  in  a box,  always  at  work,  but  never 
thought  of,  except  when  it  is  disorderly,  broken,  or  wants  wind- 
ing up,  symbolizes  the  laboring  class,  which,  like  the  main- 
spring, we  wind  up  by  the  payment  of  wages,  and  which  classes 
are  shut  up  in  obscurity,  and  though  constantly  at  work,  and 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  movement  of  society,  as  the  iron 
main-spring  is  to  the  gold  watch,  are  never  thought  of  except 
when  they  require  their  wages,  or  are  in  some  want  or  disorder 
of  some  kind  or  other.” 

Iron  is  now  relatively  one  of  the  cheapest  of  metals,  costing 
from  about  a cent  a pound  in  its  crudest  and  lowest  state  (pig 
iron),  at  the  point  of  its  cheapest  production,  up  to  five  or  six 
cents  a pound  for  its  purest  and  rarest  qualities.  In  its  refined 
and  carbonized  form  of  steel,  it  was  not  long  since  worth  twenty- 
five  cents  per  pound,  at  retail,  in  this  country ; but  the  cost  of 
the  steel-making  process  has  been  rapidly  reduced  by  recent  dis- 
coveries and  improvements,  until  steel  is  hardly  double  the  value 
of  the  better  qualities  of  iron.  New  steel-making  processes — 
several  of  them  originating  in  this  country — have  recently  been 
. patented,  and  are  now  being  reduced  to  practice,  by  which  it  is 
believed  that  the  price  of  steel  will  be  still  further  reduced,  and 
the  quality  essentially  improved. 


22 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Iron,  we  know,  is  a metal  of  a bluish-gray  color  and  fibrous 
fracture,  receiving,  when  polished,  a brilliant  surface.  It  pos- 
sesses greater  tenacity  than  any  known  metal,  and  is  at  the  same 
time  the  hardest  of  those  which  are  malleable  and  ductile.  The 
iron  of  commerce  is  not,  however,  chemically  pure  ; for,  besides 
containing  variable  qualities  of  carbon,  traces  of  silicium,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus  may  be  detected.  The  presence  of  these  sub- 
stances materially  influences  the  quality  of  the  metal,  and  there- 
fore for  objects  requiring  great  nicety  of  construction  the  purest 
varieties  are  alone  employed. 

The  texture  of  commercial  iron  varies  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  process  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  during  its  prepara- 
tion. A piece  of  iron  which  has  been  hammered  equally  in  every 
direction  will,  on  being  broken,  be  found  to  have  a finely  granu- 
lar structure;  but  when  it  has  been  drawn  into  long  bars,  in 
which  form  it  usually  comes  into  the  market,  the  texture  will  be 
invariably  more  or  less  fibrous  in  the  direction  of  the  length. 
This  silkiness  of  appearance  is  most  distinct  in  the  better  varie 
ties  of  iron,  and  its  structure  is  therefore  one  of  the  best  indices 
of  the  quality  of  the  metal.  By  skilful  management  this  pecu- 
liarity may,  however,  be  in  a certain  degree  imparted  to  the  com- 
moner varieties,  and  it  is,  consequently,  unsafe  from  this  circum- 
stance alone  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  iron.  It  is  also  found  that 
the  most  fibrous  varieties  do  not  retain  their  peculiarity  of  struc- 
ture for  an  indefinite  time,  but  that  after  a certain  period  the 
grain  of  the  metal  often  assumes  a crystalline  appearance.  These 
changes  are  most  frequently  observed  to  take  place  in  the  ten- 
sion rods  of  suspension  bridges,  and  in  other  situations  where 
the  metal  is  subject  to  constant  vibrations.  The  same  effect  is 
also  produced  by  friction,  and  for  that  reason  the  axles  of  loco- 
motives and  railway  cars  are  often  found  to  acquire  a crystalline 
structure,  and  are  therefore  rendered  harder  and  more  brittle 
than  the  metal  from  which  they  were  originally  made.  .The 
experiment  of  heating  strongly  in  a forge  specimens  of  iron  so 
changed,  and'  cooling  them  slowly  under  a bed  of  sand,  has 
proved  successful.  Metal  that  crumbled  under  blows  from  a 
hammer,  has  been  found  to  be  perfectly  fibrous  after  passing 
through  a forge. 


mom. 


23 


In  order  to  melt  iron,  the  strongest  heat  of  a wind  furnace  is 
required ; hut  when  combined  with  a small  proportion  of  carbon, 
its  fusion  is  more  readily  effected.  On  cooling,  it  assumes  a pasty 
consistence  before  taking  the  solid  form,  and  it  is  therefore  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  obtain  it  in  a crystallized  state.  When,  how- 
ever, large  masses  are  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly,  distinct  indi- 
cations of  a cubical  crystallization  are  obtained.  At  a full  red- 
heat,  iron  may  be  hammered  into  any  required  form ; and  on 
being  heated  to  whiteness,  two  fragments  may  be  firmly  joined 
together  without  the  aid  of  any  kind  of  solder.  This  operation, 
which  is  called  welding , is  effected  by  heating  two  pieces  of 
metal  until  the  exterior  is  in  a semi-liquid  state,  and  then  quickly 
uniting  them  by  repeated  blows  from  a heavy  hammer.  Con- 
siderable experience  is  requisite  in  order  to  effect  this  object ; for, 
on  heating  iron  to  the  requisite  temperature,  it  becomes  exter- 
nally coated  with  a layer  of  oxide,  which  would  effectually  pre- 
vent the  union  of  the  two  fragments  if  not  previously  removed. 

To  prevent  the  formation  of  much  oxide,  as  well  as  to  com- 
bine with  that  unavoidably  produced,  a little  silicious  sand  is 
often  sprinkled  on  the  ends  of  pieces  which  are  to  be  united,  be- 
fore they  are  placed  in  the  fire.  This  has  not  only  the  effect  of 
combining  with  any  portion  of  oxide  that  may  be  found,  and 
thereby  removing  it  from  the  surface  of  the  metal,  but  the  sili- 
cate of  iron  thus  produced  forms  a kind  of  varnish  which  effec- 
tually preserves  it  from  any  further  action  of  the  air.  On  with- 
drawing the  bars  from  the  fire,  this  is,  by  a rapid  motion  of  the 
mass,  shaken  off,  and  two  perfectly  clean  metallic  surfaces  are 
thus  brought  together. 

If  a mass  of  iron  be  either  brought  in  contact  with,  or  placed 
at  a short  distance  from  a natural  or  artificial  magnet,  it  becomes 
itself  magnetic,  but  loses  this  property  when  the  exciting  magnet 
is  removed.  When  iron  is  combined  with  a certain  amount  of 
carbon,  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  steel.  This  substance  is 
much  less  susceptible  of  the  magnetic  influence  than  ordinary 
iron,  but  when  once  the  power  has  been  communicated,  it  is  re- 
tained for  a considerable  time  after  the  removal  of  the  magnet 
from  which  it  was  acquired.  Permanent  magnets  may  be  ob- 


24 


AKT-MANUFACTURES. 


tained  by  rubbing  a bar  of  steel  either  with  a loadstone  or  an 
artificial  magnet,  and  in  this  way  an  infinite  number  of  steel  bars 
may  be  rendered  magnetic  without  at  all  diminishing  the  power 
of  the  bar  by  which  the  effect  has  been  produced.  The  mag- 
netic power  of  iron  is  much  influenced  by  its  “ temperature,”  as 
the  magnetic  needle  is  but  little  affected  by  a mass  of  that  metal 
when  made  red-hot,  but  in  cooling  it  will  be  found  to  gradually 
regain  its  magnetic  powers. 

Iron  may  be  indefinitely  exposed  to  the  action  of  dry  air,  or 
even  of  dry  oxygen  gas,  without  becoming  oxygenized ; but  if  the 
air  or  gas  contain  any  portion  of  watery  vapor,  the  surface  of  the 
metal  quickly  becomes  coated  with  a layer  of  rust.  This  is  pro- 
duced by  the  oxidation  of  the  surface  of  the  metal  when  exposed 
in  a moist  atmosphere.  The  formation  of  oxide  is  also  much  ac- 
celerated by  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid,  of  which  a certain 
portion  is  always  present  in  the  air. 

When  iron  is  strongly  heated  and  exposed  to  the  air,  its  sur- 
face is  quickly  coated  with  black  oxide,  which,  on  being  struck 
with  a hammer,  easily  scales  off.  It  is  this  property  of  iron  which' 
causes  it  to  afford  sparks  when  struck  with  a flint  or  other  hard 
body.  Under  these  circumstances,  small  particles  of  iron  are 
torn  off  by  the  flint,  which  produces  sufficient  heat  by  friction  to 
render  the  particles  of  the  metal  incandescent  on  combining  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air ; and  by  allowing  these  heated  particles  to 
fail  on  an  easily  ignitable  substance,  such  as  tinder,  a fire  is  ob- 
tained. If,  instead  of  tinder,  a piece  of  paper  be  held  beneath 
the  metal  during  the  time  it  is  being  struck  by  the  flint,  its  sur- 
face soon  becomes  covered  Avith  small  fragments  of  black  oxide 
of  iron,  fused  into  minute  globules,  and  readily  attracted  by  the 
magnet. 

Bars  of  iron,  kept  in  a vertical  position,  or  at  an  angle  of  70° 
to  the  horizon,  become  magnetic  spontaneously.  They  may  also 
be  magnetized  by  percussion,  or  an  electric  shock,  either  from  a 
common  machine  or  a thunder  cloud. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  arts,  iron  is  invariably  obtained  from 
the  native  carbonates  and  oxides  of  that  metal.  The  first  state 
in  which  it  is  presented  to  us  when  obtained  from  the  ore,  is  in 


TAZZA,  OF  BERLIN — I 


79-SO 


IEOitf. 


25 


its  combination  with  carbon,  by  which  it  is  rendered  hard  and 
brittle.  Under  this  form  its  valuable  properties  are  not  observed, 
and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  first  known  to  man  in  this  state. 
Large  masses  of  metallic  iron  are  occasionally  found  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil  in  different  parts  of  the  globe,  whilst  others  of 
similar  appearance  have  from  time  to  time  been  observed  to  fall 
from  the  atmosphere  in  the  meteoric  form.  Meteoric  iron  is 
chiefly  composed  of  iron  and  nickel,  the  latter  varying  from  two 
to  ten  per  cent.,  with  small  quantities  of  cobalt.  Science  has 
made  meteoric  iron,  and  it  has  been  tested.  Its  qualities  have 
been  found  identical  with  those  of  native  compound.  Meteoric 
iron  is  more  ductile,  and  has  more  tenacity  than  pure  iron,  and  is 
not  so  liable  to  rust  or  oxidize. 

The  existence  of  iron  in  a native  state  was  for  a long  time  a 
matter  of  dispute  among  mineralogists ; but  it  is  now  generally 
admitted  that,  although  of  rare  occurrence,  specimens  of  native 
malleable  iron  have  been  discovered.  In  our  Western  States, 
there  are  masses  of  iron — mountains  they  are  not  inaptly  called — 
of  this  metal,  almost  in  a pure  state. 

Iron  ore  is  distributed  all  over  the  globe,  at  various  depths 
below  the  earth’s  surface,  and  there  is  quite  as  great  a difference 
in  the  quality  of  the  iron  when  reduced  to  a metallic  form.  Con- 
sidered in  a purely  mineralogical  point  of  view,  without  reference 
to  their  importance  for  reduction,  they  may  be  reckoned  to  be 
nineteen  in  number,  of  which  ten  are  worked  by  the  miner  either 
for  the  sake  of  the  iron  which  they  contain,  or  for  extracting 
some  principles  from  them  advantageous  to  the  arts  and  manu- 
factures, such  as  arsenical  iron,  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphuret  of 
iron,  and  chromate  of  iron. 

Iron  is  employed  in  three  different  states — as  crude  or  cast 
iron,  as  steel,  and  as  wrought  iron.  The  difference  existing  be- 
tween these  three  substances  essentially  depends  on  the  relative 
amounts  of  combined  carbon  with  which  the  metal  is  associated. 
Cast  iron  contains  a larger  proportion  than  steel,  and  steel  more 
than  wrought  or  malleable  iron,  which  ought  to  consist  of  pure 
metal  without  the  slightest  trace  of  carbon.  In  practice,  this 
j state  of  perfection  is  never  obtained ; but  the  more  esteemed 
2 


26 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


varieties  are  only  found  to  retain  extremely  minute  portions  of 
carbon. 

As  already  stated,  many  kinds  of  ores  require  to  be  roasted 
before  they  are  treated  for  the  metal  they  contain  ; by  this  means 
the  water  and  carbonic  acid  present  are  expelled,  and  the  ore 
reduced  to  a porous  state  extremely  favorable  to  the  process  of 
smelting  which  it  undergoes. 

To  effect  the  calcination  of  ore,  it  is  piled  in  long  heaps  over 
a stratum  formed  of  large  lumps  of  coal.  The  fire  is  applied  at 
the  windward  end,  and  after  it  has  burned  a certain  distance,  the 
heap  is  prolonged  with  the  same  material  in  an  opposite  direction. 
The  ordinary  height  of  the  heap  varies  from  about  six  to  seven 
feet,  while  its  breadth  at  the  bottom  is  about  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet.  The  roasting  of  iron  is  likewise  frequently  conducted  in 
furnaces  resembling  ordinary  lime-kilns,  and  in  which  its  calci- 
nation is  effected  in  the  same  way. 

There  are  six  descriptions  of  iron  that  come  from  the  furnace 
m which  the  ore  is  melted.  The  first  is  called  foundry  iron , 
and  contains  much  carbon.  This  combination  makes  the  metal 
very  brittle,  but  it  is  well  adapted  for  castings,  as  it  becomes 
very  fluid  when  melted,  and  will  run  into  the  finest  and  most  del- 
icate moulds.  It  is  used  for  small  ornamental  castings,  and  any 
thing  that  requires  a minute  and  perfect  adaptation  to  the  shape 
of  the  mould.  It  is  distinguished  in  its  appearance  by  great 
smoothness  on  the  surface  of  the  pig,  and  in  the  fracture  it  ex- 
hibits a large  dark  bright  and  open  grain,  intermixed  with  dead 
spots  of  lighter  color  and  closer  texture. 

The  next  variety  is  also  known  as  foundry  iron  / it  has  less 
carbon  and  is  closer  grained.  It  is  not  so  fluid  when  melted,  nor 
so  smooth  on  the  face  of  the  pig.  It  is,  however,  harder  and 
stronger,  and  is  preferred  where  strength  and  durability  are 
required. 

The  next,  from  its  appearance,  often  called  dark  gray  iron , 
has  still  less  foreign  admixture  in  its  composition,  and  is  used 
indifferently  for  the  forge  and  the  foundry,  particularly  in  situa- 
tions where  it  is  to  be  exposed  to  constant  wear  and  tear,  for 
which  its  toughness  and  hardness  admirably  fit  it. 


IRON. 


27 


Bright  iron  comes  next  in  order,  and  it  is  used  exclusively 
for  larger  castings.  It  possesses  great  strength,  but  not  fluidity 
enough  to  adapt  itself  to  intricate  or  minute  mouldings,  and  it 
derives  its  name  from  its  bright  lustre. 

Mottled  iron  is  used  exclusively  for  the  forge,  as  it  is  wholly 
unsuited  to  the  wants  of  the  foundry.  It  is  smooth  in  the  face, 
hardly  exhibiting  any  grain,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of  two 
qualities  imperfectly  combined,  hence  its  name. 

White  iron  is  supposed  to  contain  a very  small  portion  of 
carbon.  It  is  totally  unfit  for  castings,  and  is  so  thick  as  hardly 
to  run  into  the  pig  moulds,  and  so  brittle  that  the  largest  pig 
may  be  readily  broken  by  a blow  with  a sledge  hammer.  It  is 
too  hard  to  yield  in  any  degree  to  the  chisel,  and  when  broken 
the  color  of  the  fracture  is  silvery  white. 

All  these  six  descriptions  contain  oxygen  and  carbon,  and  it 
will  be  seen  that,  so  far  as  the  carbon  is  considered,  the  purer  the 
iron  is  when  it  runs  from  the  furnace,  the  less  fitted  for  foundry 
purposes. 

The  process  consists  in  separating  a portion  of  the  carbon 
from  the  pig,  and  then  reducing  the  iron  to  a greater  degree  of 
purity,  preparatory  to  the  subsequent  operations  it  must  undergo. 
This  is  effected  by  keeping  the  pig  in  a state  of  fusion  for  some 
time,  exposed  to  a very  great  degree  of  heat,  in  a strong  blast 
furnace  prepared  for  the  purpose.  When  cooled,  it  is  taken  to 
the  puddling  furnace,  where  the  oxygen  and  carbon  are  still  fur- 
ther and  more  carefully  separated  than  could  be  accomplished  in 
the  refinery.  In  about  half  an  hour  the  pieces  of  metal  begin  to 
melt,  and  when  the  whole  is  reduced  to  a fluid  state,  the  puddler 
(the  name  given  to  the  workman)  stirs  it  about  in  all  directions, 
exposing  every  part  in  turn  to  the  action  of  the  flames.  The 
mass  heaves  and  boils,  showing  the  escape  of  an  elastic  fluid,  and 
when  it  has  passed  through  this  stage  it  begins  to  thicken  till  it  is 
in  a state  that  allows  the  puddler  to  form  it  into  lumps,  which 
are  called  puddler’s  balls  or  blooms.  From  the  puddler,  the 
blooms  pass  to  the  shingler,  who  gives  them  a few  blows  with  a 
hammer,  weighing  from  six  hundred  to  twelve  hundred  pounds, 
worked  by  machinery,  to  make  them  more  solid ; or,  they  go 


28 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


directly  to  the  rollers,  where  each  bloom  is  passed  between  the 
cylinders  called  rolls , entering  the  largest  hole  first,  and  each  in 
succession.  The  bloom,  as  it  comes  out  on  the  opposite  side,  is 
received  by  a boy,  who  places  the  end  to  the  second  and  next 
sized  hole,  through  which  it  passes,  and  so  on,  till  it  is  reduced  by 
being  elongated  to  the  proper  size. 

The  iron  is  now  in  the  shape  of  a bar,  rough  and  imperfect  on 
its  edges,  scaly  and  uneven  on  its  surfaces,  and  unsound  in  the 
body,  and  therefore  not  yet  calculated  for  the  smith’s  use.  An- 
other process  these  bars  must  undergo.  The  first  step  is,  to  trim 
the  ends,  and  cut  them  into  proper  lengths,  which  is  done  by  a 
strong  pair  of  shears,  worked  by  the  engine.  Then  they  are 
taken  to  a reverberatory  furnace,  heated  by  a coal  fire  at  the  end, 
in  which  they  are  stacked  up  with  care,  and  heated.  In  the  fur- 
nace, by  the  action  of  the  flames,  all  the  corners  and  sharp  edges 
are  worn  off  or  rounded,  and  at  the  proper  moment  they  are 
withdrawn  in  succession  and  passed  through  the  finishing  rolls, 
which  give  to  the  bars  their  respective  size  and  shape — round, 
flat,  or  square.  Then  they  are  straightened  on  a long  bench  of 
cast  iron,  by  boys,  who  stamp  them,  and  the  ends  are  again 
trimmed  by  powerful  shears. 

A great  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  has  been 
brought  forward  by  Mr.  Bessemer,  in  England,  who  claims  the 
discovery  of  a process  by  which  the  ore  is  reduced  to  wrought 
iron  at  one  heat,  and  at  a great  saving  of  expense,  while  the  iron 
thus  produced  is  superior  to  that  obtained  by  the  ordinary 
method.  But  the  process  employed  is  no  improvement  over  that 
in  use  in  the  United  States  some  years  in  advance  of  Mr.  Besse- 
rner’s  discovery.  The  American  process  consists  in  adding  to 
the  pig-iron  placed  in  the  puddling  furnace,  such  a proportion  of 
oxide  of  iron  that  the  oxygen  of  the  ore  shall  exactly  suffice  for 
eliminating  the  carbon  of  the  pig  metal  as  carbonic  oxide,  or  car- 
bonic acid.  This  proportion,  the  editor  of  the  Annual  of  Scientific 
Discoveries  believes  to  be,  fifteen  parts  of  ore  to  one  hundred  of 
pig-iron.  The  whole  is  melted  up  together  in  the  puddling  furnace. 
The  oxide  at  first  acts  as  a flux,  but  is  gradually  reduced  to  pure 
metal,  giving  up  its  oxygen  to  the  carbon  of  the  pig  metal.  When 


IRON. 


29 


the  operation  is  complete,  the  iron  master  finds  that  he  has  not 
only  obtained  a perfectly  fibrous  iron  without  loss,  but  for  every 
one  hundred  pounds  of  pig  metal  put  into  the  furnace,  he  draws 
out  an  average  of  one  hundred  and  five  pounds  of  fibrous  iron. 

Mr.  Bessemer’s  process  consists  in  making  the  fuel  already 
combined  with  the  iron  in  the  blast  furnace,  do  the  work  which 
is  commonly  thrown  upon  the  puddling  furnace.  He  has  a cylin- 
drical vessel  pierced  with  holes  for  the  blast,  and  having  other 
openings  through  which  to  charge  and  tap  the  metal  vat.  This 
is  so  placed  that  the  molten  metal  from  the  blast  furnace  can  flow 
into  it.  Through  the  metal,  while  still  glowing,  a current  of  air 
is  passed.  A violent  boiling  takes  place  in  the  melted  iron,  and 
flames  and  sparks  rise  from  the  vessel.  The  heat  is  greatly  in- 
creased ; the  combined  carbon  begins  to  separate  from  the  metal, 
burning  off  in  an  immense  flame.  As  the  carbon  diminishes,  the 
oxygen  of  the  blast  combines  with  some  of  the  iron,  forming  an 
oxide  which  every  metallurgist  knows  to  be  a powerful  solvent 
of  silica.  Scorise  are  consequently  found,  not  upon  the  surface, 
but  throughout  the  melted  mass.  The  violent  ebullition  so  mixes 
up  the  contents  of  the  crucible  that  these  fusible  scoriae  are  dis- 
seminated through  the  mass.  Being  lighter  than  the  metallic 
iron,  they  rise  to  the  surface  and  boil  over,  carrying  with  them 
the  silicious  matter  diffused  through  the  mass,  and  washing  the 
metal  clean.  The  pure  iron,  fused  by  the  intense  heat,  is  tapped 
out  into  the  ingot  moulds  ready  to  receive  it. 

Another  improvement  made  in  England  in  the  preparation  of 
pig-iron,  consists  in  the  introduction  of  one  and  a half  or  two  per 
cent,  of  common  salt  into  the  coke  ovens  along  with  the  coals. 
The  salt  removes  the  sulphur  from  the  coke,  and  hence  the  iron 
made  with  this  coke  in  the  blast  furnace  is  materially  improved. 

And  an  improvement  brought  about  in  Scotland,  in  the  same 
branch  of  industry,  consists  in  conducting  the  coal  gas  that 
escapes  from  the  mouth  of  the  furnace  and  bringing  it  by  flues 
underneath.  Two  hundred  and  forty-five  tons  a week  were 
turned  out  in  this  way  in  one  week,  against  one  hundred  and 
eighty  tons  by  the  old  process ; and  the  saving  in  the  amount  of 
coal  was  nearly  fifty  per  cent. 


30 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Within  the  past  few  years  an  immense  saving  of  coal  has  been 
effected  in  some  iron  smelting  establishments,  by  conducting  the 
waste  heat  of  the  blast  furnaces  under  boilers  to  generate  steam 
for  driving  the  machinery  employed. 

The  venerable  Dr.  Nott,  says  the  Scientific  American,  was  the 
first  inventor  who  attempted  to  save  the  waste  heat  of  blast  fur- 
naces, and  apply  it  usefully,  and  his  invention  has  now  come  into 
general  use.  Hitherto,  however,  the  application  of  the  waste 
gases  of  such  furnaces  has  been  defective,  owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  making  the  hot  gases  descend  from  the  top  of  the  blast  stack 
under  steam  boilers  placed  on  the  ground,  thus  rendering  the 
system  almost  inapplicable  to  iron  works  built  on  level  ground. 
This  difficulty  has  been  entirely  obviated  by  the  improvement  in 
blast  furnaces,  for  which  a patent  has  been  issued  to  Henry  W eis- 
senborn,  of  New  York. 

By  Mr.  Weissenborn’s  invention  the  hot  gases  of  the  blast 
furnace  are  stored  up,  in  a reserve  gas  chamber,  and  made  to  de- 
scend easily  from  the  top  of  the  blast  furnace  under  boilers  placed 
on  level  ground.  This  improvement  is  not  merely  theoretically 
good ; it  has  been  practically  and  successfully  applied  at  the  Eu- 
rioka  Iron  Works,  Wyandotte,  Mich.,  where  the  gas  is  made  to 
come  down,  without  extra  fans,  under  the  boilers,  and  into  the 
hot  blast,  and  during  an  experiment  of  twenty-one  days,  at  no 
time  was  all  the  waste  heat  used  for  generating  the  steam  and 
heating  the  blast.  Thus  the  whole  cost  of  fuel  for  driving  the 
steam  engine  in  these  iron  works  has  been  entirely  saved  by  this 
improvement;  and  every  invention  which  economizes  waste  in 
fuel  is  of  vast  importance  to  the  iron  interests  of  our  country. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MOULDING  FOR  CAST  IRON. 

Cast  iron  was  first  known  in  England  in  tlie  twelfth  century. 
At  the  present  day  there  is  no  metal  more  generally  used,  and 
none  that  has  been  more  abused  when  employed  for  ornamental 
purposes.  Familiarity,  in  this  as  in  every  thing  else,  breeds  con- 
tempt, and  we  have  treated  this  metal  with  so  much  indifference 
that  we  have  now  reached  a point  which  almost  forbids  the  en- 
couragement of  the  really  beautiful,  in  the  application  of  so  hum- 
ble a material  to  our  daily  wants.  To  this  subject  we  shall  here- 
after call  attention,  and  at  present  will  confine  ourselves  to  the 
foundry  where  all  castings  are  made. 

The  foundry  consists  of  a workshop  for  preparing  patterns,  a 
vast  area,  called  properly  the  foundry,  in  which  the  moulds  are 
made  and  filled  with  the  molten  iron ; blast  furnaces,  capable  of 
melting  speedily  the  quantity  of  iron  to  be  employed  each  day,  a 
steam  engine,  smith’s  forge,  &c.,  &c. 

The  metal  obtained  from  the  blast  furnace  is  sometimes  direct- 
ly conducted  to  the  moulds,  where  it  is  to  receive  the  form  under 
which  it  is  to  be  employed ; but  for  the  better  kinds  of  castings, 
and  particularly  when  their  weight  is  not  very  considerable,  the 
metal  is  first  run  into  pigs,  and  afterwards  re-melted  in  a furnace 
called  a cupola,  from  which  the  fused  iron  is  subsequently  drawn 
off  into  moulds  prepared  for  its  reception. 

The  best  irons  for  the  purpose  of  casting  are  those  belonging 


32 


AET-MAHTTPACTUKES. 


to  the  first  and  second  class,  as  the  white  varieties  are  so  extreme- 
ly brittle  as  to  render  them  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  the  founder. 
The  iron  best  adapted  for  casting  directly  from  the  crucible  of  the 
furnace  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  gray  iron.  This  iron  is  fine 
in  the  grain,  and  contains  but  a small  proportion  of  graphitous 
matter,  which  would,  if  present,  tend  to  render  the  metal  porous, 
and  materially  detract  from  its  strength.  The  iron  produced  by 
furnaces  heated  by  wood  charcoal  is,  when  the  mineral  treated  is 
tolerably  pure,  invariably  well  calculated  for  casting ; but  when 
coke  is  employed,  various  precautions  are  necessary  to  be  ob- 
served in  order  to  obtain  satisfactory  results.  In  this  case  both 
the  ore  and  the  fuel  are  liable  to  contain  substances  prejudicial  to 
the  quality  of  the  metal,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  use  a 
large  proportion  of  flux,  and  to  employ  coke  prepared  from  coal 
containing  but  little  iron  pyrites. 

The  mould  into  which  the  iron  is  poured  should  not  only  in 
every  respect  resemble  in  form  the  object  to  be  produced,  but 
also  possess  sufficient  solidity  to  admit  of  the  liquid  metal  being 
poured  into  it  without  changing  its  dimensions ; and  it  should, 
moreover,  be  sufficiently  porous  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the  air 
contained  in  the  cavities,  as  well  as  of  the  combustible  gases 
generated  by  the  action  of  the  fused  metal  on  the  carbonaceous 
matter  present. 

The  moulds  for  large  castings  are  heavy,  consisting  of  two, 
and  often  several,  parts,  which  are  moved  by  means  of  cranes, 
and  the  melted  iron  is  usually  transported  from  the  furnace  to 
the  mould  in  the  same  way.  The  moulds  are  made  of  green 
sand,  baked  sand,  or  loam.  The  sand  itself  should  be  a kind  of 
loam,  possessed  of  a sufficient  portion  of  argillaceous  matter  to 
render  it  moderately  cohesive  when  damp. 

When  green  sand  is  used,  it  is  passed  through  a fine  wire 
sieve,  and  mixed  with  about  one-twelfth  its  bulk  of  finely  pow- 
dered coal,  and  when  slightly  moistened  and  worked  together  it 
forms  a porous  compound,  capable  of  preserving  the  form  of  the 
object  impressed  upon  it.  When  the  mixture  has  once  been  used 
it  cannot  be  employed  again,  except  for  the  coarsest  castings,  and 
is  generally  reserved  for  filling  up  the  bottoms  of  fresh  moulds. 


MOULDING  FOR  CAST  IRON. 


33 


The  mechanical  process  employed  in  the  preparation  of  moulds 
in  baked  sand  are  precisely  similar  to  those  used  with  green  sand. 
Baked  sand  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  used  without  any  admix- 
ture of  coal  dust ; and  after  the  completion  of  the  mould,  it  is  at 
once  removed  to  a kind  of  oven,  or  drying  kiln,  where  it  remains 
until  the  moisture  is  entirely  removed,  when  the  metal  is  run  in 
while  the  sand  is  hot.  Castings  made  in  this  way  are  less  liable 
to  imperfections  and  air-holes  than  those  prepared  in  ordinary 
green  sand,  as,  from  the  porous  nature  of  the  material,  the  gases 
have  greater  facilities  of  escaping ; and  as  the  mould  is  kiln-dried 
before  the  introduction  of  the  metal,  there  is  less  chance  of  its 
becoming  chilled  than  by  the  other  method.  In  all  these  manipu- 
lations, however,  the  success  of  the  several  operations  must  in  a 
great  measure  depend  on  the  skill  and  discrimination  of  the 
moulder,  who  should  not  only  produce  in  the  sand  the  exact 
counterpart  of  the  object  to  be  made,  but,  by  a judicious  mixture 
of  his  materials,  so  adjust  his  moulds  that  they  may  possess  a con- 
siderable degree  of  tenacity,  and  also,  at  the  same  time,  to  be 
sufficiently  porous  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  the  gases  which  are 
generated  on  the  introduction  of  the  liquid  metal. 

To  mould  an  object  in  sand,  it  is  necessary  to  be  provided 
with  an  exact  model  of  the  article  to  be  cast.  This  may  be  made 
either  of  wood  or  metal,  but,  from  not  being  liable  to  warp  or 
shrink,  the  latter  is  generally  preferred.  Besides  the  model,  or 
pattern,  the  founder  employs  a peculiarly  constructed  cast  iron 
box  (see  cut),  which  admits 
of  being  readily  separated  in- 
to two  parts.  In  addition  to 
its  perpendicular  sides,  c,  this 
box,  or  flask , as  it  is  techni- 
cally called,  is,  when  of  large 
dimensions,  frequently  pro- 
vided with  a series  of  cross- 
bars, which  support  the  sand 
and  add  greatly  to  the  solidity  of  the  mould.  The  two  parts,  A 
i and  B,  of  the  flask  may  be  easily  separated  from  each  other,  be- 
\ ing  merely  held  together  by  the  pins,  a , and  the  corresponding 
2* 


34 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


holes,  b , which  serve  not  only  to  keep  the  two  halves  always  in 
the  same  relative  position  with  regard  to  each  other,  hut  also 
afford  the  means  of  firmly  joining,  by  the  aid  of  suitable  keys, 
the  two  portions  of  the  flask. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  form  of  any  given  model,  the  moulder 
places  the  part  B of  the  flask  on  a platform  on  a level  of  the 
foundry  floor,  and  having  inverted  it  so  that  the  crossbars,  when 
there  are  any,  may  be  uppermost,  he  fills  it  with  sand,  which  he 
forces,  by  the  aid  of  a rammer,  through  the  spaces  left  between 
them.  When  this  has  been  done,  the  half  box  is  again  turned, 
and  as  the  sand  with  which  it  is  filled,  and  which  is  retained  in  its 
place  by  friction  against  the  sides  and  bars,  has  been  strongly 
pressed  against  a smooth  surface,  it  will  necessarily  itself  take  the 
same  form.  The  workman  now  takes  the  pattern,  6,  from  which 
the  casting  is  to  be  made,  and  after  having  scraped  a cavity 
roughly  resembling  the  object  to  be  moulded,  in  the  smooth  sur- 
face of  the  sand,  the  model  is  as  nearly  as  possible  imbedded  to 
one-half  its  thickness.  The  whole  is  now  slightly  sprinkled  either 
with  charcoal  dust  or  fine  sand,  which  is  found  to  prevent  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  two  parts  of  the  mould  in  the  next  operation. 

The  part,  A,  of  the  box  is  now  lifted  in  its  place,  and  is  main- 
tained in  its  position  by  the  pins,  «,  entering  into  the  holes,  b , of 
the  part  B.  The  upper  frame  is  then  filled  with  sand,  which  is 
well  and  carefully  rammed  down,  and  as  soon  as  this  is  accom- 
plished, the  box  is  turned,  so  that  the  frame,  A,  is  placed  under, 
and  the  part,  B,  is  cautiously  lifted  in  a vertical  direction,  and  the 
two  halves  are  again  separated.  The  lower  half,  A,  will  now  con- 
tain the  pattern  just  half  imbedded  in  the  sand,  which  is  generally 
found  to  fit  very  closely  around  the  sides.  As,  however,  perfect 
contact  in  all  the  parts  is  seldom  thus  obtained,  the  moulder  con- 
solidates the  sand  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  mould 
by  first  squeezing  water  on  it  from  a wet  rag,  and  afterwards 
pressing  it  down  with  a small  trowel.  When  this  has  been  done, 
the  support  of  sand  prepared  in  the  first  operation  is  destroyed, 
and  the  flask  and  its  contents  presents  the  appearance  represented 
in  the  woodcut.  At  this  stage  of  the  operation,  the  part,  B,  of 
the  box  is  again  replaced,  and  after  the  surface  of  the  sand  con- 


MOULDING  FOR  CAST  IRON. 


35 


tained  in  the  lower  half,  A,  has  been  again  dusted  to  prevent 
adhesion,  the  upper  part  is  filled  with  sand,  well  rammed  in  as 
before. 

In  order  to  make  the  model  separate  readily  from  the  sand  in 
which  it  is  imbedded,  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  a few  gentle  taps 
with  some  hard  body,  since,  if  this  precaution  were  neglected,  the 
mould,  on  the  removal  of  the  pattern,  would  present  a ragged 
appearance,  from  having  adhered  in  some  places  to  the  model 
around  which  it  has  been  pressed.  After  the  model  has  been  re- 
moved, any  slight  imperfections  in  the  impression  are  carefully 
repaired  by  the  use  of  a little  moistened  sand,  which  is  applied 
with  iron  trowels  of  various  shapes  and  dimensions.  If  the  two 
parts  of  the  flask  be  now  joined  by  means  of  the  projecting  pins 
and  their  corresponding  holes,  it  will  evidently  contain  a cavity 
exactly  corresponding  in  form  to  the  object  to  be  produced  in 
metal,  but  before  the  casting  can  be  commenced,  it  is  necessary 
to  prepare  proper  openings  for  the  introduction  of  the  liquid 
metal,  and  the  escape  of  the  enclosed  air  as  well  as  the  vapors 
generated  during  the  operation.  If  but  one  aperture  were  em- 
ployed to  effect  these  objects,  the  air  could  only  make  its  escape 
through  the  same  opening  by  which  the  molten  metal  is  intro- 
duced, and  the  casting  would  consequently  be  subject  to  imper- 
fections from  portions  of  the  former  being  retained  in  the  mould, 
the  vapors  would  also  not  have  proper  facilities  for  escape,  and 
violent  and  dangerous  explosions  would  be  liable  to  ensue.  To 
obviate  these  inconveniences,  at  least  two  orifices  are  made  in 
every  mould,  into  one  of  these  the  melted  metal  is  poured,  whilst 
the  gases  and  vapors  evolved  from  the  sand  find  vent  through  the 
other.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  air,  the  sand  itself 
is  rendered  porous  by  being  pierced  by  the  aid  of  a wire  with 
numerous  small  holes,  extending  to  within  about  an  inch  of  the 
mould. 

When  an  article  to  be  cast  is  hollow,  the  outer  surfaces  are 
obtained  in  sand  as  above  described,  and  the  interior  cavity  pro- 
duced by  suspending  in  the  proper  position,  by  wires  or  other 
contrivances,  an  exact  model  of  the  vacancy  which  is  required  to 
be  produced.  This  model,  or  core,  is  generally  made  either  of 


36 


ART-M  A NUFACTURES. 


clay  or  loam,  and  when  of  large  dimensions,  is  supported  by  an 
iron  centre,  and  rendered  more  tenacious  by  the  addition  of 
chopped  hay,  or  some  other  cheap  filamentary  material. 

Iron  pipes  were  originally  cast  horizontally  in  moulds  of  sand, 
the  preparation  of  which  was  a work  of  much  time  and  care. 
They  are  now  cast  upright,  in  a mould  sunk  in  the  ground,  and 
the  labor  attending  the  process  is  in  some  measure  reduced. 

Some  years  ago,  an  ingenious  inventor  patented  in  England  a 
method  of  manufacturing  iron  pipes,  or  pipes  of  any  metal,  not  so 
much  by  casting  as  by  a species  of  churning.  Only  a single  mould 
was  wanted,  and  that,  instead  of  having  to  be  renewed  for  each 
pipe,  was  available  for  an  indefinite  number.  The  mould  was,  in 
fact,  a cylinder,  made  to  revolve  at  the  rate  of  some  thousands 
of  times  a minute,  by  means  of  steam  power  applied  to  proper 
machinery.  By  a stop-cock  the  molten  metal  was  projected  into 
the  cylinder  through  the  shaft  upon  which  it  revolved,  and  de- 
posited it  to  any  required  thickness  upon  its  interior  by  the 
rapidity  of  the  revolution.  The  contracting  which  ensued  on  the 
cooling  of  the  metal,  enabled  the  workmen  to  withdraw  it  from 
the  mould,  which  was  rapidly  cooled  by  artificial  means  and  em- 
ployed in  the  same  way  again.  Pipes  made  by  this  process  were 
found  to  be  much  closer  in  texture,  and  therefore  much  stronger 
than  those  cast  in  the  usual  way,  and  it  was  calculated  they  would 
bear  double  the  hydraulic  pressure  of  ordinary  pipes.  But  not- 
withstanding the  completeness  of  the  machinery,  from  some  un- 
accountable cause  the  invention  has  never  been  worked  success- 
fully to  any  great  extent. 

Moulds  of  loam  are  made  directly  from  drawings  of  the  object 
to  be  produced,  as  from  the  nature  of  the  material  employed,  the 
use  of  patterns  becomes  unnecessary.  The  mould  is  formed  from 
a mixture  of  clay,  water,  sand,  and  cow  hair,  which,  after  having 
been  reduced  to  a state  of  a hard  paste,  and  thoroughly  kneaded 
in  a loam  mill  or  pug-tub,  is,  by  the  use  of  proper  instruments, 
made  to  assume  the  form  required.  This  method  of  casting  is 
chiefly  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  hollow  vessels,  such  as 
boilers,  sugar  pans,  and  lead  pots,  in  which  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  is  very  inconsiderable  when  compared  with  the  other  di- 


MOULDING  FOE  CAST  IEON. 


37 


mensions  of  the  castings.  The  preparation  of  a loam  mould  is, 
in  many  instances,  a complicated  operation,  as  the  workman  has 
frequently  to  model  a considerable  portion  of  the  work  without 
an  sort  of  guide  except  his  own  correctness  of  eye,  by  which  to 
regulate  his  tools. 

When  castings  with  particularly  hard  surfaces  are  required, 
metallic  moulds  are  sometimes  employed,  as  from  the  rapidity 
with  which  these  lose  their  heat,  the  iron  poured  into  them  is 
found  exteriorly  to  acquire  a peculiar  hardness.  Cannon  balls 
are  sometimes  cast  in  moulds  made  of  cast  iron,  and,  to  prevent 
the  melted  metal  from  adhering,  the  inside  of  the  mould  is 
covered  with  black-lead.  This  method  is  called  chill-casting. 

Sometimes  it  is  found  convenient  to  mould  and  cast  one  part 
of  a design  first,  and  then  mould  it  with  the  other  part,  so  that 
the  two  will  be  incorporated  at  the  next  casting.  Wrought  and 
cast  iron  are  often  brought  together  in  this  way,  particularly  for 
wheels,  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  have  spokes  of  great  strength. 
These  are  of  wrought  iron,  and  when  placed  in  the  sand  the  end 
of  each  spoke  projects  into  the  hub  and  rim,  the  melted  iron  is 
then  poured  in  to  form  the  rim  and  hub,  and  the  whole  becomes  a 
perfect  wheel  of  great  strength,  and  compact  in  the  highest 
degree. 

The  patterns  used  in  the  foundry  are  usually  made  of  wood, 
and  metal ; and  plaster  of  Paris  is  also  frequently  employed,  par- 
ticularly for  works  of  a high  order,  and  which  require  to  be 
wrought  out  with  great  delicacy.  Iron  is  known  to  shrink  in 
cooling,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  the  pattern  some- 
what larger  than  the  article,  when  cast,  is  intended  to  be.  The 
shrinkage  amounts  to  about  one  per  cent.,  and  to  correct  it  the 
workman  is  supplied  with  a contracting  rule,  made  like  a survey- 
er’s  rod,  but  one-eighth  of  an  inch  longer  in  the  foot  than  ordi- 
nary standard  measure.  But  when  a wooden  pattern  is  to  be 
made,  from  which  an  iron  pattern  is  to  be  cast,  two  shrinkages 
must  be  allowed  for,  and  a rule  one-quarter  of  an  inch  longer  in 
the  foot  is  required. 

For  melting  cast  iron,  in  a small  blast  furnace,  called  a cupola, 
is  employed.  These  cupolas  vary  in  size  according  to  the  quan- 


38 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


tities  of  metal  they  are  destined  to  melt  at  one  time,  but  the 
same  principles  of  construction  are  in  all  cases  invariably  observed. 
The  furnace  consists  of  an  iron  casing,  internally  lined  with  brick 
or  argillaceous  sand,  and  is  supplied  with  air  by  one  or  more 
tuyers,  or  conical  tubes,  connected  with  a rapidly  revolving  fan. 
The  diameter  of  the  nozzles  of  these  varies  from  three  to  five 
inches,  and  the  vanes  of  the  fan  which  supplies  the  air,  make 
from  six  hundred  and  fifty  to  nine  hundred  revolutions  per 
minute. 

When  the  furnace  is  first  lighted,  no  metal  is  thrown  into  it 
until  a considerable  accumulation  of  ignited  coke  has  taken  place 
in  the  bottom.  Coke  and  pig-iron  are  then  ultimately  charged  in 
the  proportion  of  twenty-five  of  the  former  to  every  one  hundred 
parts  of  the  latter.  The  iron  must,  before  its  introduction  into 
the  furnace,  be  broken  into  pieces  varying  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
eight  pounds  in  weight,  and  the  first  charge  generally  begins  to 
melt  in  twenty  minutes  after  it  has  been  thrown  in.  The  suc- 
cessive charges  are  made  at  intervals  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  min- 
utes, but  this  is  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  dimensions  of  the 
apparatus,  and  the  quality  of  the  metal  which  is  being  fused. 
When  the  fusion  is  complete,  the  clay  plug,  which  closes  the 
mouth  of  the  furnace,  is  pierced  with  a pointed  iron  bar.  The 
molten  metal  pours  out,  and  is  transferred  from  the  cupola  to  the 
moulds  by  two  different  methods.  For  large  and  heavy  castings, 
the  moulds  are  often  sunk  in  the  floor  of  the  workshop,  and  con- 
veniently near  to  the  cupola ; the  liquid  iron  is  then  led  to  it  by 
means  of  channels  formed  in  the  sand.  But  when  the  moulds  are 
small,  and  are  situated  at  a considerable  distance  from  the  melted 
iron,  it  is  drawn  into  large  ladles,  which  are  lined  with  loam,  and 
carried  by  the  founders  to  the  place  where  they  have  prepared 
the  moulds  to  receive  it. 

During  the  intervals  which  occur  between  the  successive  cast- 
ings, the  tap-hole  is  closed  by  a plug  of  damp  clay.  When  a 
heavy  casting  is  to  be  made  at  a considerable  distance  from  the 
melting  furnace,  larger  ladles  of  the  kind  above  described  are 
employed,  and  these  are  lifted  and  carried  to  the  place  of  their 
destination  by  means  of  cranes  or  other  machinery. 


• 

MOULDING  FOR  CAST  IRON. 


39 


Every  casting  requires  considerably  more  metal  to  be  melted 
than  is  necessary  to  fill  the  moulds.  The  excess  goes  to  form  the 
gates,  false  seams,  &c.,  which  are  removed  after  the  cooling  of 
the  iron,  and  before  the  castings  are  sent  out  of  the  foundry. 
Besides  this,  there  is  always  an  actual  loss  of  about  six  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  metal  employed,  so  that,  after  deducting  all  these 
several  items,  each  cwt.  of  coke  thrown  into  the  furnace  is  found 
to  melt  about  three  cwt.  of  ordinary  pig-iron. 

And  here  we  cannot  do  better  than  insert  an  account  of  the 
Novelty  Works,  New  York,  which  appeared  in  the  Evening 
Post  of  that  city,  in  1850,  and  was  subsequently  copied  into  the 
Merchants’  Magazine,  with  some  additional  particulars : 

“As  a subject  that  little  has  been  written  upon,  we  append 
a description  of  one  of  the  largest  iron  manufactures  in  the 
United  States — the  Novelty  Works,  belongingto  the  Messrs.  Still- 
man, Allen  & Co.,  whose  names  are  so  closely  connected  with 
the  great  triumphs  obtained  in  the  recent  construction  of  our 
largest  ocean  steamers.  A visit  to  this  extensive  establishment 
will  convey  some  idea  of  iron  manufactures  in  general.  Where 
this  giant  concern  now  stands  was,  a few  short  years  ago,  an  un- 
improved point  of  land  jutting  into  the  East  River — the  favorite 
resort  of  the  sportsman,  who  pursued  his  favorite  amusement 
here  unmolested.  It  is  now,  however,  quite  a populous  locality, 
and  the  busy  haunt  of  industry. 

“The  ground  covered  by  these  works,  at  present,  extends 
from  Twelfth  to  Fourteenth  street,  and  eastward  about  a thou- 
sand feet,  including  two  slips  capable  of  accommodating  eight  or 
ten  of  the  largest  class  of  steamships.  During  the  past  week, 
there  were  no  less  than  seven  steamers,  of  the  most  extensive 
dimensions,  at  these  works — the  “Arctic,”  the  “Franklin,” 
“ Cherokee,”  “ Florida,”  “ Alabama,”  “ Columbia,”  and  “ Fanny.” 
The  whole  machinery  of  the  establishment  is  driven  by  a low- 
pressure  steam  engine  of  one  hundred  horse  power,  and  of  the 
most  elegant  construction,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  enclosure 
or  yard,  in  a building  constructed  for  that  purpose. 

“ The  whole  establishment  is  divided  into  eighteen  depart- 
ments, at  the  head  of  each  of  which  is  a foreman  to  superintend 


40 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  mechanics  and  laborers  under  his  particular  direction.  The 
following  is  a list  of  the  number  of  men  engaged  in  the  whole 
concern,  with  their  various  employments,  as  furnished  us  by  one 
of  the  Messrs.  Stillmans : 


Iron  founders, 

248 

Painters, 

3 

Brass  founders, 

15 

Masons, 

6 

Machinists, 

359 

Riggers, 

31 

Boilermakers, 

242 

Laborers, 

38 

Carpenters, 

34 

Cartmen, 

6 

Coppersmiths, 

27 

Clerks  and  Storekeepers, 

11 

Blacksmiths, 

71 

Watchmen, 

6 

Draughtsmen, 

9 

Patternmakers, 

24 

Metallic  Life-boat  builders 

S 

Instrument  makers, 

21 

Total  1,170 

Hose  and  Belt  makers, 

2 

“ Besides  these  there  are  about  twenty  boat-builders  in  the 
establishment.  The  average  wages  for  each  man  is  about  $1.50 
per  day,  commencing  at  seven  o’clock  in  the  morning  and  ending 
at  six  in  the  evening.  This  makes  a total  of  about  $9,000  per 
week  for  wages  alone  ; the  yearly  business  transacted  amounting 
to  near  a million  of  dollars.  The  business  is  increasing  at  a rapid 
rate,  and  it  is  calculated  that  before  the  end  of  another  year, 
there  wTill  be  an  addition  to  the  number  of  hands  at  present  em- 
ployed of  at  least  two  hundred,  to  meet  the  growing  demand. 

“ Much  has  been  done  at  these  works  to  improve  the  machin- 
ery for  making  sugar.  More  than  one  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  dollars  worth  of  this  particular  description  of  machinery 
was  constructed  here  during  the  past  year. 

M This  branch  of  business  is  not  confined  to  the  ordinary 
machinery  of  West  India  plantations,  but  extends  to  all  the  nice 
and  complicated  operations  of  that  used  in  refining,  even  to  the 
most  minute  instruments  employed  in  testing  the  quality  and 
condition  of  saccharine  juices.  The  famous  improvement  in  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  in  Louisiana,  by  which  the  value  of  the 
article  has  been  nearly  doubled,  and  which  engrosses  much  at- 
tention among  the  planters,  are  the  fruits  of  this  enterprise. 
These  improvements  were  made  by  Mr.  A.  Stillman,  and  consist 


MOULDING  FOE  OAST  IKON. 


41 


in  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  apparatus,  by  which  one- 
half  the  quantity  of  fuel  formerly  consumed  is  saved.  The 
machinery  used  in  the  refining  process  was  formerly  imported ; 
it  is  now,  however,  thanks  to  the  skill  and  enterprise  of  our 
mechanics,  constructed  entirely  in  this  country.  The  exten- 
sive sugar  refineries  of  Messrs.  Havemeyer  & Muller,  of  this 
city,  and  C.  R.  Dimond  & Co.,  of  Bristol,  Rhode  Island,  may  be 
quoted  in  proof  of  this  statement. 

u Some  of  these  improvements  have  obtained  a wide-spread 
popularity,  and  are  in  great  request  among  the  planters  in  Cuba 
and  other  West  India  Islands,  where  they  have  been  introduced. 
In  St.  Croix,  about  ten  years  ago,  there  were  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  plantations,  and  but  three  steam  engines  on 
the  island ; and  these,  from  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  fuel,  were 
put  in  operation  only  when  light  winds  or  calms  threatened  the 
loss  of  the  crop  by  keeping  the  windmills  in  a state  of  inaction. 
The  introduction  of  machinery,  which  requires  but  one-fourth 
of  the  fuel  before  used,  has  given  the  Novelty  Works  an  envia- 
ble reputation,  and  conferred  upon  the  island  a permanent 
benefit. 

“ After  this  necessary  digression  we  will  return  to  our  de- 
scription. The  iron  foundry  is  a separate  building,  of  two  hun- 
dred and  six  feet  long  by  eighty  feet  wide,  with  a wing  upon  one 
side,  in  which  are  four  cupola  furnaces,  capable  of  melting  at  one 
heat  sixty  tons  of  iron,  which,  if  required,  may  be  deposited  into 
one  mould,  making  a single  casting  of  that  enormous  weight. 
There  is  also  another  furnace,  which  is  occasionally  used  for 
special  purposes.  The  blast  for  the  furnaces  is  made  by  Demp- 
fel’s  fan,  and  is  brought  underground  through  a pipe,  having  a 
sectional  area  of  about  five  square  feet.  Arranged  upon  the  op- 
posite side  from  the  furnace  are  six  drying  ovens,  each  with  a 
railway  and  two  carriages,  and  each  within  the  sweep  of  one  or 
more  of  six  cranes,  some  of  which  are  capable  of  hoisting  twenty 
tons. 

All  the  different  processes  of  moulding  known  to  the  artisan 
by  the  terms — loam,  green,  and  dry  sand  moulding — are  here 
carried  on.  The  first  process  is  generally  performed  without 


42 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


patterns,  in  the  following  manner : — A wall  is  built  of  brick-work, 
which  is  coated  over  with  a mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  about  the 
consistency  of  common  mortar,  and  is  put  on  somewhat  in  the 
manner  that  a mason  plasters  a house.  This  coating,  when  par- 
tially dried,  is  painted  over  with  a mixture  of  finely  ground 
charcoal,  clay,  and  water,  which  prevents  the  adhesion  of  the 
loam  to  the  iron.  Some  of  these  moulds  consist  of  but  two 
members  or  parts,  while  others  have  more.  A bed-plate  for  the 
engine  of  a large  steamer,  has  as  many  as  eighty-seven  members, 
all  of  which,  in  the  process  of  moulding,  are  dissected  from  each 
other,  dried,  and  again  put  together. 

“ This  mould  is  about  six  weeks  in  preparation,  employing  in 
its  various  stages,  from  eight  to  forty  men,  and  requiring  about 
thirty-five  tons  of  metal  to  fill  it,  which  weight  is  exceeded  by  the 
plates  and  bars  used  in  its  construction.*  The  fluid  metal  is 
drawn  from  the  furnaces  as  fast  as  melted,  and  deposited  into  two 
large  receivers  until  a sufficient  quantity  is  collected,  when  it  is 
discharged  into  the  mould.  The  process  of  cleaning  off  the 
mould,  and  hoisting  out  the  casting,  requires  about  a week. 
Green  sand  moulding  is  not  so  called  from  the  color  of  the  sand, 
but  rather  in  contradistinction  to  the  same  material  dried.  This 
sand  in  its  primitive  state,  is  the  common  yellow  loam,  generally 

* At  the  Novelty  Works,  the  bed-plate  of  the  Baltic  was  cast.  It  weighs 
130,148  lbs.,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  heaviest  casting  ever  made  in  the  world. 
Within  the  past  eighteen  months,  six  heavy  castings,  including  the  above,  have 
been  made  at  this  foundry.  Previously  the  largest  casting  made  there  was  that 
for  the  Arctic,  a bed-plate,  which  weighed  forty-five  tons,  and  that  for  the  At- 
lantic, which  weighed  thirty-seven  tons. 

In  the  summer  of  1854,  the  cylinder  of  the  steamboat  Metropolis  was  cast 
here.  This  is  the  largest  steam-engine  cylinder  in  the  world.  It  is  one  hun- 
dred and  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  fourteen  feet  in  length,  the  stroke 
of  the  piston  being  twelve  feet.  Twenty-two  persons  sat  down  to  lunch 
in  this  cylinder,  with  room  enough,  and  to  spare,  and  subsequently  one  hundred 
and  sixteen  men  stood  inside  the  flanges  and  fairly  within  the  cylinder,  on  the 
platform  which  had  been  laid  down  for  the  table.  A horse  and  chaise-wagon 
was  also  driven  repeatedly  through  it,  backwards  and  forwards.  We  should 
add,  that  the  Novelty  Works  are  no  longer  carried  on  by  Messrs.  Stillman,  Allen 
& Co.,  but  by  a joint-stock  company,  under  the  title  of  “ The  Novelty  Iron 
Works. 


MOULDING  FOK  CAST  IKON. 


43 


found  near  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Large  quantities  of  it  are 
obtained  from  the  suburbs  of  Brooklyn.  When  used  in  mould- 
ing it  is  damped  to  a considerable  consistency,  an  impression  is 
made  on  it  from  a pattern  formed  of  wood,  being  in  shape  a fac- 
simile of  the  casting  required.  Dry  sand  moulding  is  the  same 
process  as  that  last  described,  with  the  addition  of  the  coating  of 
charcoal  and  clay,  mentioned  under  loam  moulding,  and  finished 
by  drying  in  the  oven. 

“ The  amount  of  iron  melted  here  in  one  month  is  about 
three  hundred  tons,  all  of  which  is  of  American  manufacture. 
The  whole  department  is  under  the  skilful  direction  and  manage- 
ment of  N.  M.  Stratton,  whose  experience  in  this  particular 
branch  is  well  known. 

“ The  casting  of  one  of  those  large  bed-plates  for  an  ocean 
steamer,  is  one  of  the  grandest  spectacles  imaginable.  The  liquid 
and  fiery  metal,  after  escaping  from  the  furnace,  rushes  roaring 
and  seething  along  the  channels  leading  to  the  mould,  throwing 
off,  in  its  course,  hundreds  of  bright  and  starry  scintillations — 

‘It  rises,  roars,  sends  all  outright — Oh,  Vulcan,  what  a glow? 

’Tis  blinding  white,  ’tis  blasting  bright — the  high  sun  shines  not  so ! 

The  high  sun  sees  not,  on  the  earth,  such  fiery  fearful  show  : 

The  roof-ribs  swarth,  the  candent  hearth,  the  ruddy,  lurid  row 
Of  smiths  that  stand,  an  ardent  band,  like  men  before  the  foe.’ 

“ The  casting  of  various  portions  of  machinery  was,  in  the  early 
days  of  the  art,  attended  with  much  danger,  from  the  heated 
metal  coming  in  contact  with  confined  gas,  which  exploded,  to  the 
imminent  danger  of  all  in  the  vicinity.  Now,  however,  such  acci- 
dents are  of  very  rare  occurrence,  owing  to  the  skill  and  expe- 
rience of  modern  mechanics. 

“We  have  bestowed  more  attention  on  the  foundry  than  we 
can  upon  any  other  department  of  the  establishment,  as  we  con- 
ceived it  would  be  more  interesting  to  the  general  class  of  our 
readers  than  dry  details  of  the  other  branches,  and  must  now, 
with  a hasty  description  of  the  other  portions,  bring  this  already 
extended  article  to  a hasty  conclusion. 

“ In  another  portion  of  the  concern  is  the  machine  shop, 


44 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


where  are  sent  the  various  pieces  of  machinery  after  being  cast, 
to  be  subject  to  a refining  and  polishing  process.  Upon  lathes 
of  an  appropriate  size  and  strength  are  placed  cylinders,  piston- 
rods,  and  other  parts  of  the  engine,  in  a position  in  which  they 
are  exposed  to  the  edge  of  cutters,  which  take  off  the  rough  por- 
tion of  the  surface,  and  plane  it  down  to  the  required  dimensions 
and  smoothness.  After  this  process  they  are  again  subjected  to 
another,  by  which  a polish  is  given  them.  In  addition  to  these, 
there  are  several  large  planing  machines  and  cutting  mills,  the 
former  for  smoothing  the  flat  surface  of  iron,  and  the  other  for 
cutting  round  the  uneven  side  of  the  interior  of  cylinders. 

“ Besides  the  foundry  for  iron,  there  is  one  also  for  brass, 
which  is  not  materially  different  from  the  iron  foundry,  with  the 
exception  that  the  castings  are  necessarily  smaller.  The  various 
parts  of  the  engine  composed  of  brass  are  made  here.  Passing 
to  the  blacksmiths’  shop,  we  saw  a large  number  of  men  at  work, 
for  whom,  it  seems,  there  is  no  lack  of  employment  the  whole 
year  round.  In  this  department  there  are  about  thirty  forges  in 
full  blast,  with  a due  complement  of  men  to  each.  Large  cranes 
for  heavy  pieces  of  iron  are  placed  at  regular  intervals  through 
the  shop.  An  immense  quantity  of  iron  is  worked  up  in  this  de- 
partment daily,  the  wheels  and  other  portions  not  cast  in  the 
foundry  being  made  here.  Messrs.  Stillman,  Allen  & Co.  make 
even  the  timepieces,  thermometers,  and  similar  instruments  used 
on  board  steamships.” 

Cast  iron  is  remarkably  brittle,  owing  to  the  foreign  sub- 
stances with  which  it  is  more  or  less  alloyed,  and  when  fractured, 
we  have  no  way  of  joining  the  parts  other  than  by  using  rivets, 
and  this  method  will  not  render  a vessel  tight  again,  or  hide  the 
defect.  But  the  Chinese  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their 
singular  skill  in  mending  such  vessels.  The  whole  process  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  open  air,  and  all  the  workman  requires  is  a little 
box  sixteen  inches  long,  six  inches  in  width,  and  eighteen  inches  in 
depth,  supplied  with  bellows,  a few  little  crucibles,  and  a handful 
of  charcoal.  As  soon  as  the  little  bits  of  cast  iron  with  which 
the  crucibles  are  charged  are  melted,  the  liquid  metal  is  poured 
on  a layer  of  partly  charred  husks  of  rice  or  paddy,  previously 


MOULDING  FOR  CAST  IRON. 


45 


spread  over  a thick  cloth,  the  object  of  "which  is  to  prevent  the 
sudden  cooling  of  the  metal.  Whilst  in  the  liquid  state,  the 
metal  is  quickly  conveyed  with  the  right  hand  to  the  fractured 
part  of  the  vessel  and  forced  into  it  with  a jerk.  Then,  with  the 
left  hand,  a paper  rubber  is  passed  over  the  obtruding  liquid  on 
the  inside  of  the  vessel,  making  a strong,  substantial,  and  neat 
operation. 

Cast  or  wrought  iron  may  be  sawn,  when  at  a red  heat,  with 
a common  saw.  To  diminish  the  resistance,  the  saw  should  be 
fine  and  the  iron  must  not  be  made  too  hot ; for  if  the  surface  be 
too  near  a state  of  fusion  the  saw  will  be  clogged  and  the  process 
will  not  go  on  well.  The  saw  should  be  moved  very  quickly, 
which  will  prevent  its  becoming  much  heated ; it  will  also  make 
its  way  better,  and  the  cut  will  be  more  clean  and  exact.  The 
iron  should  be  so  placed  as  to  have  a firm  bearing  every  where, 
except  where  the  saw  is  to  pass,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  break 
before  the  cutting  is  finished. 

There  are  several  ways  of  giving  iron  castings  a coat  of  enamel 
or  glaze,  of  which  the  following  is  probably  as  simple  as  any.  It 
consists  of  three  parts,  by  weight,  of  white  lead  (or  one  part  of 
red  lead  and  two  parts  of  white  lead),  to  two  parts  of  borax  and 
one  part  of  calcined  flints,  which  are  to  be  fiised,  run  into  water, 
and  ground  in  a glaze  mill  to  the  consistency  of  cream.  The 
article  coated  is  to  be  placed  in  a kiln  in  such  a way  that  no  flame 
or  sulphur  shall  touch  it,  and  heated  till  the  glaze  melts. 

Another  process  is,  to  cleanse  the  article  in  an  acid  solution, 
and  then  cover  it  with  a glutinous  preparation,  over  which  is  laid 
a coat  of  glass,  ground  to  a powder.  The  article  is  then  intro- 
duced into  a furnace  of  a peculiar  construction,  in  which  the  glass 
is  fused,  and,  the  intermediate  glutinous  matter  being  evaporated, 
the  glass  fills  the  external  pores  of  the  metal,  and  becomes  firmly 
united  to  it. 

Iron  may  also  be  coated  with  zinc,  and  other  metals,  and  the 
methods  are  very  simple.  For  a coating  of  zinc,  a quantity  of 
that  metal  is  melted  in  an  open  vessel,  and  on  its  surface  is  placed 
a layer  of  the  chloride  of  zinc,  or  a mixture  of  chloride  of  zinc  and 
chloride  of  potassium,  and  when  in  a state  of  fusion  the  metal  to 


46 


AET-MAmjFACTUEES. 


be  coated  is  placed  in  the  bath,  and  allowed  to  remain  there  till 
a coating  of  sufficient  thickness  has  been  obtained ; it  is  then 
withdrawn,  and  any  parts  of  the  surface  imperfectly  covered  are 
sprinkled  with  sal-ammoniac,  and  the  sheets  of  iron  again  im- 
mersed in  the  bath.  Iron  may  also  be  coated  with  tin,  silver, 
copper,  or  brass,  the  process  being  slightly  varied  in  every  case. 
Iron  that  has  been  coated  with  zinc,  when  worked  over  and  rolled 
out  into  rods,  has  been  found  to  indicate  from  five  to  ten  per  cent, 
higher  strength  than  the  best  samples  of  wrought  iron. 

Berlin  is  now  famous  for  its  iron  castings,  which  are  un- 
equalled. This  is  not  owing  to  any  superiority  in  the  iron  or  coal 
used,  for  both  of  these  are  obtained  from  England,  but  to  the 
superior  quality  of  the  sand  employed  for  moulds,  and  probably 
to  some  peculiarity  in  the  manner  of  fusing  the  metal.  Whatever 
the  secret  may  be,  it  is  guarded  well,  and  the  workmen  are  con- 
stantly producing  in  iron,  articles  that  are  elsewhere  wrought 
only  in  more  costly  metals.*  The  accompanying  design,  for  a 
baptismal  font,  will  illustrate  this.  Its  form  is  Gothic,  executed 
in  the  best  style  of  the  art,  and,  like  other  Berlin  castings,  it  has 
a bronze  surface  to  guard  against  rust,  and  it  is  lined  with  brass. 

* A correspondent  of  the  Scientific  American  thus  writes  to  that  Journal 

“ To  produce  such  castings  in  iron  [Berlin  castings]  it  is  necessary  in  the 
first  place  to  have  a perfect  pattern,  brass  being  generally  preferred  for  this 
purpose  ; in  the  next  place  the  pattern  must  be  accurately  moulded.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this,  a fine  close  sand  is  required  (perhaps  Waterford  sand  would 
answer),  which  must  be  partially  dried  and  sifted  through  a fine  sieve.  When 
the  pattern  has  been  moulded  and  withdrawn  from  the  mould,  the  latter  5" 
dusted  over  with  fine  brick  dust  made  from  fresh  burnt  soft  brick.  The  ] 
tern  is  now  dried,  carefully  returned  to  its  place  in  the  sand  mould,  and  rapped 
home  with  a wooden  mallet,  and  again  withdrawn.  If  the  mould  has  been  suf- 
ficiently dusted,  it  will  have  a surface  as  fine  as  the  pattern.  The  mould  or 
flask  is  now  put  into  the  oven  and  dried.  Before  it  is  quite  cold,  it  receives  a 
coat  of  lampblack,  by  putting  some  oil  in  an  open  dish,  and  using  a large  wick 
so  that  it  will  burn  with  considerable  smoke.  The  mould  is  now  held  over  the 
smoking  oil  until  it  is  sufficiently  coated  with  lampblack.  When  this  is  accom- 
plished, the  flask  is  closed,  clamped  or  screwed  together,  and  is  then  ready  for 
the  molten  metal.  This  is  the  way  the  fine  Berlin  castings  are  made.  I have 
seen  quite  a number  of  these  castings  made  in  our  country,  by  a Berlin  work- 
man, who  was  in  my  employ.” 


p.  64 


BAPTISMAL  FONT  IRON. 


— — — — — 


IRON  STATUE  TO  GEN.  YON  SC  WARN  HOIST. 


MOULDING  FOR  CAST  IRON. 


47 


The  Tazza,  at  page  25,  is  also  from  the  same  foundry,  and  is  an 
admirable  specimen  of  perforated  work,  conceived  in  good  taste, 
and  executed  with  clearness  and  decision.  At  page  38  there  is  a 
statuette  of  Marshal  Blucher,  and  we  here  introduce  one  erected 
to  General  Yon  Scharnhorst,  by  King  Frederick  William  III. 
They  are  both  of  iron,  coated  with  bronze,  and  are  from  the  Ber- 
lin foundry. 

A writer  in  one  of  the  London  papers  asserts  that  cast  iron  is 
the  best  known  material  for  cannon.  One  of  the  cast  iron  guns 
taken  at  the  capture  of  Bomarsund  underwent  an  experimental 
trial,  and  the  Russian  metal,  contrary  to  all  expectations,  with- 
stood the  experiment  unharmed.  The  grand  object  is  to  have 
the  iron  properly  made.  Iron  smelted  with  common  coal  is  al- 
ways inferior  to  that  smelted  with  charcoal,  and  herein  consists 
the  secret  of  the  superiority  of  the  Russian  cast  guns. 

Cannon  are  cast  from  wooden  models,  which  have  been  exactly 
and  smoothly  turned  in  a lathe,  so  that  they  may  leave  the  sand 
with  facility  during  the  process  of  moulding,  and  as  the  model 
does  not  admit  of  being  drawn  from  the  sand  like  a smooth  cylin- 
der, it  is  moulded  in  a box  or  flask,  after  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed. The  metal  must  be  of  the  very  best,  and  after  it  is  cast 
it  must  be  bored.  To  effect  this,  it  is  first  fixed  in  a stout  iron 
frame,  between  two  centre  points  and  “ engine  turned  ” all  over 
the  outside,  with  sharp  steel  tools  properly  fashioned,  and  then  it 
is  placed  horizontally  in  two  cast  iron  supports,  each  containing 
a hollow  brass  gully  fitted  to  the  gun  at  the  breech  and  at  the 
neck,  and  over  which  a collar  is  screwed  down,  that  the  piece 
may  revolve  steadily.  A sharp  steel  drill  is  then  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  which  is  made  to  revolve  slowly, 
and  when  the  gun  is  bored  to  the  proper  depth  by  this  process, 
the  drib  :s  removed,  and  another  instrument  introduced  in  its 
place.  This  consists  of  a shaft  of  iron  shot  at  the  extremity  with 
four  or  five  square  bits  of  steel,  attached  by  longitudinal  grooves 
to  the  rod.  This  widens  the  bore  about  the  eighth  of  an  inch, 
at  the  same  time  it  smooths  and  perfects  the  calibre  to  the  exact 
dimensions  required.  After  it  is  perfected,  it  is  examined  at  the 
arsenal,  by  introducing  a spring  instrument,  called  a searcher , to 
detect  any  flaws  or  imperfections  that  may  still  exist  in  the  iron. 


48 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


But  the  old  way  of  casting  guns  solid,  and  then  boring  them, 
has  received  a blow,  from  the  recent  discovery  of  the  superiority 
of  guns  cast  hollow,  that  it  will  not  recover  from.  The  new  pro- 
cess is,  to  form  a core  on  a tube  of  iron,  through  which  a current 
of  water  is  made  to  flow ; and  where  a gun,  cast  on  the  old  prin- 
ciple, burst  on  the  seventy-eighth  discharge,  one  on  the  new,  and 
of  the  same  calibre,  stood  fifteen  hundred  rounds  without  burst- 
ing. This  superiority  is  attributed  to  the  mode  of  cooling.  The 
solid  guns  contract  entirely  from  the  outside,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  a strain  is  exerted  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  particles  of 
the  metal  in  the  same  direction  as  the  strain  of  the  discharge. 

Cannon  appear  to  have  been  used  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century : they  did  fearful  execution  in  battle,  but  the 
difficulty  of  managing  these  engines  of  war,  and  the  small  number 
an  army  was  then  able  to  transport,  prevented  their  introduction 
from  diminishing  the  importance  of  chivalry,  which  was  never 
more  brilliant  than  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
under  Maximilian  in  Germany,  and  under  Charles  VIII.,  Louis 
XII.,  and  Francis  I.  in  France.  The  idea  was  then  suggested  of 
multiplying  the  ravages  of  cannon  by  distributing  to  the  infantry 
more  portable  and  more  destructive  fire-arms.  These  at  first 
were  little  cannons  which  were  carried  by  two  soldiers  on  the 
march,  and  placed  upon  rests  or  props  at  the  time  of  battle. 
Soon  the  size  of  these  arms  was  again  reduced,  and  they  were 
fixed  in  a stock,  to  allow  of  the  soldiers’  taking  aim  more  readily, 
the  cheek  was  applied  to  the  butt,  which  was  curved  and  held  in 
the  left  hand,  the  end  of  the  piece  was  supported  on  the  forquine , 
a staff  with  a kind  of  iron  fork  driven  into  the  ground.  The 
powder  in  the  fire-pan  was  ignited  with  the  right  hand  by  means 
of  a match.  This  weapon  received  the  name  of  arquebuss.  One 
hand  was  required  for  its  support  and  this  made  it  difficult  to  ad- 
just, and  moreover  the  rest  was  inconvenient  to  carry;  the  next 
improvement  was  to  place  the  match  in  a long  curved  bar,  called 
a serpentine,  wdiich  conveyed  the  fire  to  the  pan  by  the  pressure 
of  the  finger  upon  a trigger  placed  along  the  stock.  The  match 
presented  numerous  inconveniences : it  was  next  exchanged  for 
something  of  less  imperfect  construction.  Under  the  fire-pan  was 


REVOLVER. MASS.  ARMS  CO. 


■ 

. 

■ 

: f.  , ■ v-;;  k-A:  : !<v- " 

. 

' 


MOULDING  FOE  CAST  IEON. 


49 


fixed  a furrowed  wheel  of  steel,  which  communicated  with  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  by  means  of  a slide ; and  against  this  wheel 
was  placed  a flint  held  between  two  strong  clams  of  iron,  like  the 
cock  of  a gun.  On  removing  a catch,  the  wheel,  which  was  turned 
by  a spring,  attached  to  it  by  a chain,  revolved  so  rapidly  against 
the  flint  as  to  elicit  sparks,  which  lighted  the  powder  in  the  pan. 
These  arms  were  denominated  wheel  arquebusses.  Not  unfre- 
quently  both  match  and  wheel  were  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  same  piece,  in  order  that  the  one  might  take  effect  in  case  of 
the  other  failing. 

From  the  time  that  fire-arms  were  made  portable,  they  became 
fitting  subjects  for  the  decoration  of  art.  The  barrels  of  the  ar- 
quebusses and  pistols  were  enriched,  like  the  armor,  with  fine  chas- 
ings and  ornaments,  damascened  in  gold  and  silver.  The  stock 
was  ornamented  with  fine  incrustations : for  which  were  used  ivory 
dyed  in  various  shades,  and  woods  of  different  colors ; sometimes 
it  was  overlaid  with  slabs  of  ivory,  upon  which  were  engraved 
figures,  subjects,  and  ornaments  of  great  delicacy.  The  plate  of 
the  lock  and  the  hammer  were  also  richly  decorated,  having 
chased  on  them  ornaments,  arabesques,  figures  in  relief,  and  often 
even  charming  little  figures  in  full  relief.  The  perfection  which 
the  arts  of  design  had  by  that  time  attained  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany,  admitted  often  of  giving  a great  artistic  value  to  the 
ornamentation  of  fire-arms. 

The  improvement  of  the  present  century  in  fire-arms  is  of  the 
most  marked  character,  and  they  deal  out  death  and  destruction 
whenever  brought  into  play,  whether  in  the  form  of  the  ponder- 
ous cannon  or  that  of  the  repeating  rifle  and  pistol.  These  last 
are  now  deemed  indispensable  alike  to  the  soldier  and  the  hunter, 
and  the  name  of  Colt  is  now  known  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  in 
connection  with  his  pistols,  which  are  wholly  unequalled. 

The  pistol  here  introduced  presents  another  variety  of  the  re- 
peating arms,  for  which  America  has  become  famous.  It  is  manu- 
factured by  the  Massachusetts  Arms  Company,  at  Chicopee  Falls, 
and  is  very  beautifully  finished.  Its  chief  peculiarity  consists  in 
the  Maynard  Primer,  the  arrangement  of  which  will  be  seen  in 
the  engraving. 

3 


50 


AET-MANUFACTUEES. 


A strip,  containing  fifty  charges,  is  coiled  up  and  placed  in  a 
magazine  in  the  lock,  and  is  fed  out  by  the  action  of  the  lock,  one 
charge  at  a time,  as  the  hammer  is  raised.  When  the  hammer 
descends,  it  cuts  off  and  fires  the  charge  fed  out  upon  the  vent  or 
cone,  thus  igniting  the  cartridge  within  the  barrel. 

The  detonation  of  the  Maynard  Primer  is  in  the  form  of  little 
lozenges,  each  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  wide,  and  one-thirtieth 
of  an  inch  thick.  These  lozenges  are  enclosed  between  two  nar- 
row strips  of  strong  paper  cemented  together,  and  rendered 
water-proof  and  incombustible.  The  single  strip  thus  formed,  is 
a little  less  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  is  very  stiff  and  firm, 
and  contains  four  of  these  lozenges  (each  of  which  is  a charge)  in 
every  inch  of  its  length ; the  charges  forming  projections,  of  their 
own  shape,  on  one  side,  having  considerable  and  equal  spaces 
between  them  ; the  other  side  of  the  strip  being  one  flat  and  even 
surface. 


CHAPTEK  IV. 

WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

IN’  order  to  transform  cast  iron  into  wrought,  it  is  necessary  to 
separate  from  it  the  carbon  and  silicium  with  which  it  is  com- 
bined. To  effect  this  object,  the  metal  is  exposed  for  a consider- 
able period  to  the  action  of  oxidizing  influences,  by  which  the 
carbon  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  which  escapes  in  the  gase- 
ous form,  whilst  the  resulting  silica  unites  with  oxide  of  iron,  giv- 
ing rise  to  the  formation  of  vitreous  slags.  Cast  iron  also  fre- 
quently contains  small  portions  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  which 
require  to  be  carefully  removed  during  the  process  of  refining,  as 
their  presence  in  the  wrought  iron  produced  would  materially 
affect  its  properties,  and,  if  occurring  in  large  quantities,  render 
it  entirely  useless.  The  separation  of  these  substances  from  cast 
iron  is  attended  with  very  great  difficulty,  and  their  occurrence 
in  the  rough  metal  is,  therefore,  avoided  as  far  as  is  possible. 

When  cast  iron  is  strongly  heated  in  contact  with  air,  its  sur- 
face soon  becomes  covered  with  a layer  of  oxide.  By  degrees 
this  oxide  again  reacts  on  the  interior  portion  of  the  mass,  the 
carbon  which  it  contains  reduces  the  oxide  first  formed,  metallic 
iron  is  produced  and  carbonic  oxide  gas  is  evolved. 

When  the  metal  is  judged  to  be  sufficiently  refined,  the  work- 
man collects  it  together  in  the  form  of  large  balls,  and  exposes 
them  successively  to  the  action  of  a heavy  hammer,  by  which  the 
vitreous  slag  is  expelled,  and  the  spongy  metal  compressed  into 


52 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


a compact  form.  The  operation  by  which  the  last  portions  of 
carbon  are  extracted  from  the  metal,  is  called  puddling , and  the 
puddled  iron,  after  being  properly  compressed  by  the  heavy  ham- 
mer, is  again  heated  and  then  passed  through  a series  of  rollers, 
by  which  it  is  formed  into  bars  of  greater  or  less  length  and 
diameter. 

Some  of  these  hammers  are  of  immense  size,  and  the  blow  can 
be  graduated  with  a nicety  that  becomes  wonderful  when  we 
consider  their  great  weight.  The  largest  trip  hammer  in  the 
United  States  is  that  at  the  Cold  Spring,  West  Point,  Foundry. 
It  weighs  eleven  tons,  and  has  a drop  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches.  The  hammer  is  elevated  by  means  of  a toothed  wheel, 
and  it  then  falls  with  a crushing  weight.  The  blow  from  a steam 
hammer  can  be  graduated — a thing  not  to  be  done  with  a trip 
hammer.  The  most  powerful  steam  hammer  in  the  country  is 
that  at  the  Reading  Steam  Forge,  which  weighs  seven  tons,  and 
has  a fall  of  seven  feet.  It  is  this  great  fall  that  makes  it  so  ef- 
fective, and  while  it  is  so  arranged  that  the  full  force  of  the  blow 
can  be  brought  to  bear  on  a piece  of  iron  to  be  forged,  it  can 
also  be  graduated  to  crush  a walnut.  The  Franklin  Forge,  New 
York  City,  has  a hammer  weighing  seven  and  a half  tons,  with  a 
drop  of  six  feet.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United  States, 
and  has  been  used  successfully  to  forge  wrought  iron  shafts 
twenty-eight  inches  in  diameter  or  seven  feet  in  circumference. 

Puddled  iron  which  has  been  rolled  into  bars,  immediately  on 
its  removal  from  under  the  hammer  is  always  of  very  inferior 
quality,  being  extremely  hard  and  brittle,  besides  being  subject 
to  numerous  flaws  and  imperfections  not  observed  in  ordinary 
bar  iron.  This  may  be  employed  for  some  purposes,  but  iron 
required  for  ordinary  use  should  be  possessed  of  tolerable  tena- 
city. Its  quality  is  improved  by  cutting  the  rough  bars  into 
short  lengths,  and  afterwards  welding  them  together  in  bundles, 
and  again  passing  them  through  a set  of  rollers. 

Sheet  iron  is  made  either  by  hammering  the  heated  metal  to  the 
proper  thickness  by  the  same  methods  that  in  some  localities  are 
still  employed  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  it  into  bars,  or  it  is  made 
to  acquire  the  proper  form  and  thickness  by  being  passed,  when 


WE  OUGHT  IEON  AND  STEEL. 


53 


strongly  heated,  between  smooth  rollers  with  polished  faces,  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  manner  as  those  intended  for  reducing  it  into 
bars. 

The  metal  employed  for  making  sheet  iron  ought  to  be  very 
soft  and  tough ; and  when  thin  sheets  are  required,  such  as  those 
of  which  tin-plate  is  manufactured,  the  best  charcoal-prepared 
iron  only  can  be  used. 

To  give  the  metal  the  form  of  sheets,  it  is  repeatedly  passed 
through  sets  of  rollers,  and  when  it  has  been  rolled  into  very  thin 
sheets,  such  as  those  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  tin-plate, 
the  smoothing  of  the  surface  is  effected  by  a distinct  and  separate 
operation.  For  this  purpose,  the  reduced  metal,  after  being 
heated  to  redness,  in  order  to  restore  its  softness,  is  laid  in  suc- 
cessive layers  on  a smoothly  polished  surface  of  cast  iron,  where 
it  is  strongly  compressed  by  the  descent  of  another  surface,  acted 
on  by  hydraulic  pressure. 

A singular  illustration  of  the  tenacity  and  ductility  of  iron 
has  been  produced  at  an  iron  establishment  in  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land. It  is  in  the  form  of  a book,  the  leaves  of  which  are  of 
iron,  rolled  so  fine  that  they  are  not  thicker  than  a piece  of 
paper.  The  book  is  neatly  bound  in  red  morocco,  and  contains 
forty-four  of  these  iron  leaves — the  whole  being  only  the  fifteenth 
of  an  inch  thick.  This  curious  book  was  rolled  in  the  ordinary 
sheet-iron  rolls. 

At  equal  strengths  wire  rope  is  lighter  by  one-third  than  a 
hemp  one,  and  by  two-thirds  than  a chain.  It  was  in  1828,  that 
wire  rope  was  first  put  into  use,  and  by  the  inventor  of  the  me- 
tallic shutters,  who  found  in  a confined  space,  when  cat-gut  was 
destroyed  by  the  rats,  nothing  but  a wire  rope  would  serve  his 
purpose.  The  substitute  answered  well,  and  after  years  of  ex- 
periments, a patent  was  taken  out  in  1835  in  England,  and 
another  in  1839,  and  now  wire  rope  is  applied  to  a variety  of 
uses,  and  its  importance  is  yearly  becoming  better  understood. 

The  manufacture  of  needles  is  carried  on  in  this  country, 
though  only  of  late  years ; England,  and  the  celebrated  house 
of  Hemmings  & Son,  having  supplied  us  almost  exclusively  with 
this  article. 


54 


AKT-MANUFACTURES. 


The  wire  for  needles  is  expressly  drawn  for  that  purpose.  It 
is  cut  into  lengths  according  to  the  size  of  the  needles  to  he 
made,  then  straightened  and  pointed  on  a stone  which  revolves 
with  great  velocity ; then  they  are  stamped,  to  mark  the  place 
for  the  eye,  and  the  hole  is  punched  by  means  of  the  proper 
machinery.  The  burr  made  by  stamping  the  eye  is  filed  smooth, 
after  which  the  hardening  and  tempering  is  performed,  and  then 
they  are  again  straightened  so  as  to  make  the  shape  perfect.  By 
means  of  machinery  the  needles  are  scoured  and  brightened,  and 
the  closing  processes  are,  the  assorting,  by  placing  the  heads  and 
points  their  respective  ways,  the  eyes  blued,  or  the  temper  at 
that  point  taken  out,  that  they  may  not  cut,  and  the  drilling, 
countersinking,  and  burnishing  the  eyes. 

Gold-eyed  needles  are  produced  by  dipping  the  head  of  the 
needle  into  the  spirits  of  ether  containing  a little  solution  of 
gold,  and  which  immediately  attaches  itself  to  the  steel,  when 
dipped  in  the  menstrum.  N eedles  are  sometimes  treated  with  this 
ethereal  solution  of  gold  all  over,  in  order  to  give  them  a beauti- 
ful yellow  color,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  them  from  rust- 
ing. There  is  also  a variety  of  needles  called  silver-eyed ; but 
not  a particle  of  silver,  or  any  thing  like  it,  is  used,  the  peculiar 
white  polish  of  the  eye  being  given  by  means  of  its  application 
to  a little  cylinder  stuck  full  of  steel  pegs.  The  drilled-eyed 
needles  are  esteemed  highly,  but  they  are  no  more  drilled  than 
the  silver-eyed  owe  any  portion  of  their  finish  to  that  metal 
The  eye  is  countersunk,  and  smoothed  on  both  sides  by  a drill 
after  punching : this  not  only  makes  them  look  well,  but  renders 
them,  when  carefully  made,  little,  if  at  all  liable  to  cut  the 
thread. 

The  process  of  making  axes  has  been  greatly  simplified  within 
a few  years.  The  iron  is  rolled  into  bars  the  proper  width  and 
thickness  of  the  axe,  and  eight  or  ten  feet  long ; it  is  heated  and 
cut  off  by  a large  pair  of  shears  propelled  by  water  power ; an- 
other workman  picks  up  each  piece  and  places  it  between  a die 
and  punch,  and  the  punch  comes  down  and  forces  a hole  for  the 
handle  by  punching  out  a piece.  An  iron  mandrel  is  now  insert- 
ed in  the  hole,  and  it  is  immediately  put  under  another  press 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


55 


which  forms  one  side  of  the  axe,  and  then  goes  to  another  die, 
which  forms  the  other  side,  when  it  is  placed  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion, and  a chisel  comes  down  and  splits  the  “ bit  ” of  the  axe, 
ready  for  the  steel,  and  then  it  is  thrown  one  side.  All  this  is 
done  at  one  heat  and  in  less  time  than  it  takes  to  write  out  the 
modus  operandi.  The  blade  of  the  axe  is  then  put  in  and  welded, 
and  passed  along  to  the  forger,  who  tempers  it  and  casts  it  upon 
the  ground  to  cool.  As  soon  as  it  is  cool  it  is  taken  up,  planed 
down  to  an  edge  by  a planing  machine,  finished  up  with  emery 
wheels,  painted,  labelled,  stamped,  and  put  up  for  market. 

Anvils  for  blacksmiths’  work  are  formed  of  wrought  iron, 
generally  scraps,  with  a projecting  base  and  buttress  at  the  cor- 
ners, in  order  that  it  may  stand  firmly  upon  the  surface  of  a 
stock,  which  is  always  of  wood.  The  anvils  upon  which  steel 
articles  are  to  be  forged  are  generally  fashioned  at  the  bottom 
nearly  in  the  form  of  cubes,  for  insertion,  by  means  of  wedges, 
either  in  stone  or  wooden  stocks.  In  hardening  anvils,  as  well  as 
large  hammers,  the  mass  is  not  suddenly  immersed  in  water,  as  is 
the  method  with  articles  of  steel  generally ; such  a course  with  so 
large  a body  would  be  unsuccessful,  as  the  ebullition  thereby 
caused  would  be  so  great  that  the  steel  would  be  prevented  from 
coming  into  that  immediate  contact  with  the  water  wdfich  is 
necessary  to  produce  hardness.  Instead,  therefore,  of  instantly 
plunging  the  anvil,  it  is  suspended  by  chains  and  lowered  by 
means  of  a windlass  into  a tank,  and  a stream  of  water  is  then 
suffered  to  fall  from  above  upon  the  steel  face,  until  the  latter  is 
sufficiently  cooled,  and,  as  it  becomes  tempered  by  the  heat  re- 
maining in  the  body,  it  is  dropped  into  the  water  below,  and 
quenched  till  it  becomes  quite  cold. 

For  all  the  delicate  works  in  wrought  iron  that  have  a value 
for  the  artistic  skill  displayed  in  their  form  and  adaptation  to  our 
wants,  the  small  hammer  in  the  hands  of  the  workman,  and  the 
ringing  anvil,  must  still  hold  the  position  they  have  maintained 
for  centuries.  Metal  working  in  the  Mediaeval  ages  was  an  art, 
and  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  Ant  werp  is  the  iron  well  curb, 
wrought  by  Quintin  Matsys;  and  the  inhabitants  of  Nuremberg 
instinctively  point  the  traveller  to  the  works  of  Peter  Vischer  and 


56 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


his  five  sons,  as  well  as  to  the  stone  carvings,  and  painting  and 
engraving  of  his  eotemporaries,  Adam  Krafft  and  Albert  Durer. 
In  Nuremberg  the  art  of  wire  drawing  was  invented,  as  was  also 
the  air  gun  and  the  first  watch,  and  there  the  first  observatory 
was  erected  by  the  astronomer  Walther.  The  most  famous  artist 
of  the  seventeenth  century  was  Gottfried  Leigeber,  born  in  Silesia ; 
he  worked  at  Nuremberg,  and  died  at  Berlin  in  1683.  He  was  at 
first  a common  armorer,  and  brought  himself  into  notice  by  his 
ingenious  compositions,  and  particularly  by  his  very  delicate 
finish.  He  made  a large  number  of  bas-reliefs  in  iron,  but  the 
most  esteemed  of  this  artist’s  works  in  Germany  are  equestrian 
statues  of  rather  large  size,  cut  in  blocks  of  iron. 

The  hand  of  the  iron  worker  is  conspicuous  on  almost  every 
house  in  Nuremberg,  in  the  form  of  locks,  hinges,  and  knockers, 
all  exquisitely  wrought  in  metals,  and  chiefly  in  iron.  In  every 
thing  that  appertained  to  the  art  they  excelled,  and  as  the  old 
Venetians  prided  themselves  on  giving  a new  form  to  every  arti- 
cle of  glass  that  came  from  their  hands,  so  it  is  difficult  to  find  at 
Nuremberg  two  buildings  with  adornments  of  iron  after  the  same 
pattern.  The  trade  of  the  city  was  expansive,  and  articles  of 
varied  manufactures  there  produced  readily  found  a market  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  East,  where  they  were 
exchanged  for  the  rich  goods  of  India.  In  the  ornamental  work 
of  that  period  still  preserved  to  us,  we  find  great  purity  in  the 
delicate  tracery  they  loved  to  employ;  and  the  more  elaborate 
works,  in  which  the  metals  are  alloyed,  the  figures  are  modelled 
with  a fine  appreciation  of  the  beautiful. 

If  the  purest  iron  be  surrounded  by  charcoal  powder,  and  the 
whole  covered  with  sand,  and  exposed  to  a long  continued  red 
heat — eight  or  ten  days  for  a charge  of  ten  or  twelve  tons — it 
unites  with  one  one-hundred  and  fiftieth  of  its  weight  of  carbon, 
and  acquires  new  properties,  being  converted  into  steel.  The  ex- 
periment has  often  been  tried,  of  closing  up  a small  diamond  in  a 
cavity  of  soft  iron,  and  submitting  it  to  the  action  of  the  fire,  when 
it  is  found  that  the  diamond  disappears,  and  the  inner  surface  of 
the  iron  is  converted  into  steel.  When  ignited  and  suddenly 
cooled,  it  is  rendered  so  hard  and  brittle  as  to  be  wholly  unfit  for 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


57 


useful  purposes.  To  fit  it  for  use  it  requires  to  be  tempered, 
which  consists  in  heating  it  to  a certain  point,  and  this  is  indicat- 
ed by  the  various  colors  the  metal  assumes  on  its  surface  when  it 
is  suddenly  cooled ; but  in  this  process  there  is  much  art,  for  the 
change  may  be  so  great  as  to  cause  it  to  crack  or  exhibit  flaws. 
The  rule  that  governs  the  process  for  preparing  steel  plates  for 
the  Bank  of  England  is,  to  heat  the  metal  in  a fire  not  above  the 
redness  of  sealing-wax.  In  taking  it  out  it  is  hardened  by  plung- 
ing it — not  in  water,  but  in  olive  oil,  or  rather  naphtha,  previously 
heated  to  200°  Fahr.  It  is  kept  immersed  only  till  the  ebullition 
ceases,  when  it  is  immediately  transferred  to  cold  spring  water, 
and  kept  there  till  quite  cool.  Steel  tools  are  frequently  tem- 
pered, after  hardening,  by  covering  their  surface  with  a thin  coat 
of  tallow,  and  heating  them  in  a flame  of  a candle  till  the  tallow 
diffuses  a faint  smoke,  and  then  thrusting  them  into  cold  tallow. 

The  more  steel  is  rolled,  and  especially  the  greater  degree  of 
pressure  there  is  laid  upon  it  as  it  becomes  cooled,  in  the  same 
ratio  does  it  approximate  in  closeness  of  texture  and  practical 
value  to  that  which  has  been  drawn  out  under  the  hammer ; the 
latter,  indeed,  being  often  worked  with  considerable  less  of  uni- 
formity, both  in  the  heating,  beating,  and  the  extending,  than  the 
former.  In  order  to  get  the  bars  of  the  exact  size  required,  the 
workman  has  a gauge  which  he  applies  to  measure  the  width  and 
thickness  of  bars,  and  the  strength  of  plates ; and  such  is  the 
nicety  of  perception  acquired  by  an  eye  daily  conversant  with 
such  matters,  that  he  rarely  fails  to  hit  the  required  size  with  the 
utmost  precision. 

All  steel,  whether  cast  or  shear,  which  is  to  be  used  for  the 
best  articles,  should  be  tilted  to  the  strength  required,  by  work- 
ing it  under  a large  hammer,  put  in  motion  by  machinery,  and 
which  gives  about  three  hundred  strokes  per  minute.  During 
the  operation  of  hammering,  so  important  in  closing  the  pores  of 
the  steel,  and  thus  rendering  it  exquisitely  dense  and  compact, 
the  tilter  sits  on  a seat  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  roof  of  the  building.  By  this  contrivance,  and 
with  the  aid  of  his  feet,  he  advances  to,  or  recedes  from,  the  anvil, 


58 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


upon  which  he  manages  the  bar  under  the  hammer  with  singular 
dexterity. 

In  firing,  some  of  the  bars  are  blistered,  as  it  is  termed,  which 
results  from  the  escape  of  gas  or  vapor  incorporated  with  them. 
If  the  blistered  bars  are  broken  and  welded  together,  we  have 
shear  steel.  The  bars  that  come  out  of  the  firing  in  a perfect 
state  are  known  as  cementation  steel;  and  these,  if  broken  up 
and  fused  in  a crucible  and  protected  from  the  action  of  the  air, 
produce  cast  steel,  which  is  more  uniform  than  the  other  varieties. 

One  of  the  new  methods  of  manufacturing  cast  steel,  as  de* 
scribed  by  the  Scientific  American,  consists  in  the  introduction 
into  crucibles,  along  with  the  pieces  of  wrought  or  malleable  iron, 
of  certain  chemicals  in  which  cyanogen  is  contained.  The  usual 
furnaces  and  melting  pots  suitable  for  melting  blister  steel  may 
be  employed.  The  malleable  iron — which  may  be  of  any  descrip- 
tion, such  as  bar,  scrap,  bloom,  &c. — is  prepared  by  cutting  or 
breaking  it  up  into  small  pieces.  "With  a charge  of  fifty  pounds 
of  iron,  ten  ounces  of  charcoal,  six  ounces  of  common  table  salt, 
half  an  ounce  of  brick  dust  or  oxide  of  manganese,  one  ounce  of 
sal-ammonia,  and  half  an  ounce  of  ferro  cyanide  of  potassium,  are 
introduced  into  a crucible.  The  pot  is  then  to  be  covered  and 
placed  in  a furnace,  and  the  contents  thoroughly  melted,  the  heat 
being  maintained  for  the  space  of  three  hours  or  thereabouts. 
The  mass  is  then  to  be  poured  off  into  iron  moulds  in  the  ordina- 
ry way  of  pouring  cast  steel,  and  with  the  usual  care  for  produc- 
ing a solid  ingot.  This  may  then  be  rolled  into  sheets,  or  ham- 
mered and  tilted  into  bars,  after  the  common  method. 

Mr.  Bessemer,  in  his  new  process  for  manufacturing  iron, 
already  described,  also  claims  that  he  can,  by  arresting  the  pro- 
cess at  a certain  point,  obtain  cast  steel.  He  says  that,  at  the 
state  of  the  process  immediately  following  the  boil,  the  whole 
mass  is  converted  into  the  ordinary  quality  of  cast  steel.  As  the 
carbon  gradually  burns  off,  the  iron  passes  through  the  various 
conditions  of  hard  steel,  soft  steel,  steely  iron  and  soft  iron.  At 
a certain  stage,  therefore,  a metal  may  be  obtained  which  he  calls 
semi-steel,  and  which  he  affirms  to  be  stronger,  more  elastic, 
harder  and  more  durable  than  common  wrought  iron. 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


59 


Steel  may  be  alloyed  in  various  ways,  and  not  only  silver,  but 
platinum,  rhodium,  gold,  nickel,  copper,  and  even  tin,  have  an 
affinity  for  steel  sufficiently  strong  to  make  them  combine  with  it. 
The  finest  of  these  alloys  is  that  of  steel  with  rhodium ; but  that 
which  is  most  used,  and  which  is  next  to  it,  is  steel  with  silver, 
and  experience  has  proved  that  one  of  silver  to  five  hundred  of 
steel  is  the  best  proportion.  If  steel  and  silver  be  kept  in  fusion 
together  for  a length  of  time,  an  alloy  is  obtained,  which  appears 
to  be  very  perfect  while  the  metals  are  in  a fluid  state ; but  on 
solidifying  and  cooling,  globules  of  pure  silver  are  expressed  from 
the  mass,  and  appear  on  the  surface.  If  an  alloy  of  this  kind  be 
forged  into  a bar  and  then  dissected  by  the  action  of  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  the  silver  appears,  not  in  combination  with  the  steel, 
but  in  threads  throughout  the  mass,  so  that  the  whole  has  the 
appearance  of  a bundle  of  fibres  of  silver  and  steel,  as  if  they  had 
been  united  by  welding.  The  appearance  of  these  silver  fibres  is 
very  beautiful ; they  are  sometimes  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  suggest  the  idea  of  giving  mechanical  toughness  to 
steel,  where  a very  perfect  edge  may  not  be  required. 

At  other  times,  when  silver  and  steel  have  been  very  long  in 
a state  of  fusion,  the  sides  of  the  crucible,  and  frequently  the  top 
also,  are  covered  with  a fine  and  beautiful  dew  of  minute  globules 
of  silver. 

In  making  steel  alloys  the  proportion  of  one  to  one  hundred 
and  sixty,  uniformly  gives  silver  and  steel  in  fibres,  and  the  silver 
in  globules  appears  when  forged.  When  the  proportion  is  one  to 
three  hundred  the  fibres  diminish,  but  still  are  present ; and  they 
are  detected  even  where  the  proportions  of  one  to  four  hundred 
are  used.  But  when  the  proportion  is  one  to  five  hundred,  the 
alloy  forges  remarkably  well,  though  very  hard,  and  when  it  is 
tested  every  part  of  the  bar  gives  silver.  Various  cutting  tools, 
particularly  razors,  are  made  from  this  alloy,  for  which  use  it  is 
admirably  adapted. 

Iron  is  alloyed  by  an  admixture  of  tin,  lead,  and  arsenic,  pro- 
ducing a metal  of  which  bells,  rich  in  sound,  have  been  made  at  a 
cost  considerably  less  than  that  of  bell-metal. 

Steel  may  be  distinguished  from  pure  iron  by  applying  a drop 


60 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


of  any  weak  acid  to  the  surface,  when  the  charcoal  it  contains 
will  he  exhibited  by  a black  stain.  Cast  steel  works  much  harder 
under  the  hammer  than  shear  steel,  and  will  not  in  the  usual  state 
bear  much  more  than  a cherry  red  heat  without  becoming  brittle ; 
but  it  may  be  firmly  welded  to  iron  through  the  intervention  of  a 
thin  film  of  vitreous  boracic  acid,  at  a moderate  degree  of  ignition. 
Iron  may  be  faced  with  cast  steel  by  pouring  the  liquid  metal 
from  a crucible  into  a mould  containing  a bar  of  iron  polished  on 
one  side,  and  the  adhesion  is  so  perfect  as  to  admit  of  the  two 
metals  being  rolled  out  together.  In  this  way  mechanics’  cutting 
tools  are  made  at  a moderate  cost,  and  of  excellent  quality. 

Case  hardening  consists  in  converting  the  surface  of  iron  into 
steel,  while  the  body  retains  the  toughness  of  iron.  The  article 
is  first  neatly  finished,  and  then  placed  in  an  iron  box  with  vege- 
table or  animal  charcoal,  in  powder,  and  cemented  for  a time. 
Immersion  of  the  heated  piece  in  water  hardens  the  surface,  which 
is  afterwards  polished,  and  then  the  prussiate  of  potash  is  sprin- 
kled upon  the  part  intended  to  be  hardened.  The  prussiate  being 
decomposed  and  apparently  dissipated,  the  iron  is  to  be  quenched 
in  cold  water,  when,  if  the  process  has  been  well  managed,  the 
surface  of  the  metal  will  have  become  so  hard  as  to  resist  the  file. 

The  Swiss  harden  the  blades  *of  knives,  razors,  and  other  simi- 
lar objects  made  of  cast  steel,  by  dipping  them  at  a dark  cherry 
red  heat  in  a bath  of  powdered  yellow  rosin,  fish  oil,  and  molten 
tallow ; they  are  then  allowed  to  cool  perfectly,  and,  without 
wiping  them,  they  are  re-heated  to  a low  red  heat  and  immersed 
in  water,  in  the  usual  way  of  tempering  such  articles. 

Burnt  steel  may  be  regenerated  by  heating  it  to  a red  heat, 
and  putting  it  when  in  this  state  into  boiling  water.  Repeated 
experiments  at  the  Royal  Mint  at  Berlin  have  proved  perfectly 
successful. 

A curious  experiment  for  cutting  steel  was  first  tried  in  this 
country,  and  its  success  has  been  very  generally  acknowledged. 
The  operation  is  performed  by  placing  a circular  plate,  of  soft 
sheet  iron  on  an  axis  in  a lathe,  and  when  a very  rapid  rotary 
motion  is  given  to  it,  the  steel  brought  into  contact  with  the 
edge  is  readily  cut  in  two.  Hardened  or  soft  steel  and  wrought 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


61 


iron  may  be  cut  in  this  way,  but  it  is  very  singular  that  on  cast 
iron  it  will  not  produce  the  slightest  effect. 

The  art  of  damascening  consists  in  expressing  a design  by 
means  of  wires  of  gold  or  silver  imbedded  in  a less  brilliant  metal. 
Sometimes  also  we  meet  with  damascene  work  executed  upon  gold 
with  silver  threads  or  upon  silver  with  gold.  The  ancients  prac- 
tised this  art  with  success.  They  attributed  its  invention  to 
Glaucus  of  Chios.  The  celebrated  Isiac  table  (which  derives  its 
name  from  the  goddess  Isis,  who  is  depicted  upon  it)  refound  at 
a locksmith’s,  after  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  was  enriched  with 
a fine  damascene,  which  shows  the  Egyptians  to  have  excelled  in 
the  art.  It  was  also  practised  in  the  middle  ages ; but  the  scarci- 
ty of  works  of  that  period  serves  to  show  that  the  nations  of  the 
West  were  not  then  acquainted  with  the  process  of  enriching 
their  works  of  iron  or  bronze  with  this  kind  of  decorations.  The 
people  of  the  Levant  had,  on  the  other  hand,  acquired  great  ce- 
lebrity for  this  kind  of  workmanship,  and  from  its  being  most 
successfully  practised  by  the  people  of  Damascus,  the  art  derived 
its  name  from  that  city. 

With  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  services  of  the 
engraver,  damascener,  and  the  goldsmith,  were  all  called  into 
requisition  to  enrich  with  decorations  the  armor  of  princes  and 
knights,  for  which  the  first  artists  of  Italy  often  furnished  designs. 
The  helmet,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  armor,  was  covered  with 
figures,  arabesques,  and  ornaments  in  hammer  work,  engraved, 
chased  or  damascened  with  gold  and  silver,  and  the  shields  were 
often  covered  with  very  complicated  subjects  in  bas-relief.  The 
horse  was  as  richly  caparisoned  as  the  rider.  The  chamfron  (a 
piece  of  iron  which  covered  the  head  of  the  animal,  from  the  nape 
of  the  neck  to  the  nostrils),  was  specially  chosen  for  the  richest 
decorations.  At  length  iron  was  considered  too  base  a metal  for 
the  armor  of  the  nobility,  and  was  often  concealed  by  a rich  gilding, 
and  Sir  W alter  Raleigh  went  even  further,  and  appeared  at  the  court 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  a suit  of  armor  composed  of  massive  silver. 

The  imagination  and  talents  of  the  artists  were  exercised  also 
on  the  swords,  alike  for  use  and  ornament.  Every  point  of  the 
hilt  was  enriched  with  ornaments  and  arabesques  in  relief,  and 


62 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


even  with  little  figures  in  full  or  high  relief,  sculptured  in  the 
iron  with  exquisite  delicacy;  fine  engravings,  damascening,  and 
enamels  were  equally  employed  in  their  ornamentation,  while  the 
guard  assumed  an  elegant  and  complicated  form. 

The  true  Damascus  blades  possess  great  keenness  of  edge, 
wonderful  flexibility,  a peculiar  flecked  grain,  and  a remarkable 
musky  odor  when  bent  or  rubbed. 

The  general  impression  is,  that  the  old  method  of  preparing 
Damascus  steel  was,  to  weld  together  wires  of  iron  and  steel  and 
give  them  twists  in  different  directions,  during  the  process  of 
welding.  This  is  the  plan  now  adopted  to  give  the  usual  orna- 
ment to  twisted  rifle  barrels.  Bars  of  steel  and  iron,  placed  in 
regular  alternations,  are  welded  into  one  bar.  This  bar,  or  two 
of  them  placed  together,  undergoes  a spiral  twist,  and  then  a pro- 
cess of  welding.  Upon  polishing  the  gun  barrel,  very  intricate 
and  often  elegant  patterns  will  be  apparent. 

One  hundred  parts  of  very  gray  cast  iron,  and  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  like  filings  previously  oxidized,  produce,  by  their  fusion 
together,  a beautiful  damascene  steel,  fit  for  forging  into  blades. 

In  damascening,  the  metal  is  either  cut  deep  in  lines  that  re- 
present the  design,  and  the  gold  and  silver  wire  forced  in ; or, 
after  it  is  heated  till  it  becomes  of  a blue  or  violet  color,  it  is 
hatched  over  and  across  with  a suitable  instrument,  after  which 
the  ornamental  design  is  traced  on  the  steel  with  a fine  brass 
point  or  bodkin,  and  when  the  metal  is  chased,  fine  gold  wire  is 
sunk  into  it  with  a tool  made  for  the  purpose. 

Of  works  of  this  description  Benvenuto  Cellini  speaks  in  his 
charming  Autobiography.  It  was  a peculiarity  of  his  mind  that 
he  never  saw  a work  of  art,  executed  in  a style  new  to  him,  that 
he  did  not  try,  first  to  imitate  and  then  to  improve  upon  it ; and 
he  thus  describes  his  success  with  the  damascened  blades  that 
fell  into  his  hands : 

“ There  fell  into  my  hands  some  Turkish  daggers ; the  handles 
of  which  were  of  iron  as  well  as  the  blade,  and  even  the  scabbard 
was  of  that  metal ; on  these  were  engraved  several  fine  foliages 
in  the  Turkish  taste,  most  beautifully  filled  up  with  gold.  I 
found  I had  a strong  inclination  to  cultivate  this  branch  likewise, 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


63 


which  was  so  different  from  the  rest ; and  finding  that  I had 
great  success  in  it,  I produced  several  pieces  in  this  way.  My 
performances  indeed  were  much  finer  and  more  durable  than  the 
Turkish,  for  several  reasons ; one  was,  that  I made  a much  deeper 
incision  in  the  steel  than  is  generally  practised  in  Turkish  works ; 
the  other  was,  that  these  foliages  are  nothing  else  but  cichony 
leaves,  with  some  few  flowers  of  echites ; if  these  have  some  grace 
they  are  not  lasting  like  those  of  our  foliage.  In  Italy  there  is  a 
variety  of  tastes,  and  we  cut  foliage  in  many  different  forms ; the 
Lombards  make  the  most  beautiful  wreaths,  representing  ivy 
leaves  and  others  of  the  same  sort,  with  agreeable  twinings,  highly 
pleasing  to  the  eye.  The  Romans  and  Tuscans  have  a much  bet- 
ter notion  in  this  respect,  for  they  represent  acanthus  leaves  with 
all  their  festoons  of  flowers,  winding  in  a variety  of  forms,  and 
amongst  these  leaves  they  insert  birds  and  animals  of  several 
sorts,  with  great  ingenuity  and  elegance  in  the  arrangement. 
They  impart  have  likewise  recourse  to  wild  flowers,  such  as  those 
called  lions’  mouths,  accompanied  by  other  fine  inventions  of  the 
imagination,  which  are  termed  grotesque  by  the  ignorant.  These 
foliages  have  received  that  name  from  the  moderns,  because  they 
are  found  in  certain  caverns  in  Rome,  which  in  ancient  days  were 
chambers,  baths,  studios,  halls,  and  other  places  of  the  like  nature. 
The  curious  happened  to  discover  them  in  these  subterraneous 
caverns,  whose  low  situation  is  owing  to  the  raising  of  the  surface 
of  the  ground  in  a series  of  ages ; and  as  these  caverns  in  Rome 
are  commonly  called  grottos,  they  from  thence  acquired  the  name 
of  grotesque.  But  this  is  not  their  proper  name,  for  as  the  an- 
cients delighted  in  the  composition  of  chimerical  creatures,  and 
to  the  mixed  breed  of  animals  supposed  to  spring  from  the  pro- 
miscuous conjunction  of  goats,  cows,  and  mares,  gave  the  appel- 
lation of  monsters;  in  like  manner  produced  by  their  foliages 
monsters  of  this  sort,  and  that  is  the  proper  name  for  them,  not 
grotesques.  In  such  a taste  I made  foliages,  filled  up  in  the 
manner  above  mentioned,  which  were  far  more  elegant  and 
pleasing  to  the  eye  than  the  Turkish  works.” 

Ornaments  are  not  uncommonly  put  upon  steel  by  the  chemi- 
cal action  of  solutions  of  various  metals,  most  of  them  being  com- 


64 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


binations  of  acids.  The  steel  is  first  covered  with  some  etching 
ground,  through  which  the  design  is  cut  to  the  surface,  and  the 
metallic  solution  being  poured  upon  it,  the  metal  or  its  oxide  is 
precipitated  through  the  lines  and  a superficial  chemical  combina- 
tion is  thus  effected. 

Steel  may  be  gilded  by  the  employment  of  the  ethereal  solu- 
tion of  gold,  and  upon  dipping  the  metal  into  the  solution  an 
electro-chemical  action  appears  to  take  place,  the  result  of  which 
is,  a film  of  gold  is  deposited  upon  the  metal.  In  this  way  gold- 
eyed needles  receive  a small  coating  of  the  precious  metal,  and 
many  steel  ornaments  are  fancifully  decorated. 

A very  brilliant  display  of  colors  may  be  produced  upon  steel 
by  depositing  upon  it  films  of  lead  by  the  agency  of  a voltaic 
battery.  The  piece  of  steel  to  be  ornamented  is  connected  with 
one  pole  of  the  battery,  and  upon  it  is  placed  a cardboard  per- 
forated pattern  of  any  suitable  design.  This  is  kept  in  close 
contact  with  the  steel,  and  it  is  placed  in  a solution  of  tfee  sugar 
of  lead.  A wire  from  the  opposite  pole  of  the  battery  is  now 
brought  down  upon  the  steel,  piercing  exactly  through  the  centre 
of  the  perforated  card.  A beautiful  series  of  colors,  in  thin  films, 
and  enlarging  gradually,  cover  every  part  of  the  steel  {date 
except  those  on  which  the  paper  of  the  pattern  is  pressed. 

A new  process  for  ornamenting  the  surface  of  steel — and  it 
may  be  applied  to  other  metals — consists  chiefly  of  the  combined 
process  of  transferring  impressions  from  engraved  or  painted  sur- 
faces to  the  metal,  and  electro-plating  or  electro-gilding  them 
after  biting  out  the  metal,  so  as  to  leave  the  design  either  sunk 
or  in  relief.  To  effect  this  the  surface  is  well  cleaned  by  rubbing 
it  with  wash-leather  and  j)owdered  lime,  when  the  impression  of 
an  engraved  plate  or  stone,  taken  on  tissue  paper,  is  laid  on  its 
surface  and  rubbed  with  flannel,  after  which  the  paper  is  washed 
off.  A solution  of  gum  guiacum  in  spirits  of  wine  is  then  applied 
to  the  surface  of  the  metal,  by  means  of  a camel-hair  pencil,  after 
which  the  coating  of  gum,  which  is  over  the  impression,  is  readily 
removed  by  the  use  of  a piece  of  cotton  wool  dipped  in  spirits  of 
wine,  the  gum  not  fixing  on  the  impression.  The  impression  is 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


65 


then  bitten  out  with  acids  in  the  usual  way  adopted  by  etchers 
and  engravers  on  metals. 

In  order  to  obtain  engravings  in  relief  the  process  must  be 
reversed,  the  engraved  part  being  protected  by  means  of  resin  or 
asphaltum  dusted  on  it,  the  plate  being  warmed  to  insure  the  ad- 
herence of  the  parts  required,  after  which  the  other  parts  of  the 
surface  are  bitten  out  with  acids.  The  metal  plate,  in  either 
case,  is  next  washed  with  a hot  solution  of  soda  or  potash,  to  re- 
move all  traces  of  acid,  and  scratched  with  a wire  brush,  after 
which  it  is  placed  in  the  electro-plating  or  electro-gilding  ap- 
paratus. 

Niello  is  the  name  of  a process  frequently  resorted  to  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  as  a means  of  ornamenting  gold  and  silver, 
though  it  was  practised  at  a much  earlier  period.  It  is  a compo- 
sition of  silver,  lead,  copper,  sulphur,  and  borax,  which,  when 
fused,  produces  a black  color,  and  it  was  used  in  the  following 
manner.  The  design  was  hatched  (cut  in  lines  and  crossed)  on 
the  gold  or  silver  plate,  with  a steel  point,  and  finished  with  an 
engraver’s  burin  ; then  the  composition  above  described  was  run 
in  while  hot,  and  the  superfluous  parts  were  rubbed  off,  leaving 
the  engraved  design  much  resembling  a print. 

A woman  having  accidentally  gone  into  the  studio  of  one 
Finiguerra,  a Florentine  engraver  in  metals,  laid  down  a wet 
cloth  upon  a plate  engraved  in  niello,  and  was  not  a little  sur- 
prised when  she  took  it  up  again  to  find  the  whole  of  the  engrav- 
ing stamped  upon  it.  This  incident  made  a deep  impression  on 
the  mind  of  Finiguerra,  who  tried  various  experiments  and  at 
last  produced  a perfect  etching  on  paper,  with  an  ink  made  of 
soot  and  oil,  and  a proof  print  of  one  of  these  works  is  now  in 
the  Louvre.  The  plate,  engraved  by  him  in  1452,  of  the  first 
engraving  ever  printed,  is  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Florentine  Gal- 
lery. No  other  man  was  ever  known  to  engrave  so  many  figures 
in  so  small  a space,  with  such  perfect  correctness  of  drawing. 
This  process  may  be  said  to  be  the  origin  of  engraving  on  copper, 
and  subsequently,  on  steel. 

If  steel  be  heated  and  then  cooled  suddenly,  as  we  have  al- 
ready remarked,  it  becomes  hard  and  brittle;  but  if  cooled 


66 


AET-MANUFACTUEES. 


slowly  it  is  rendered  soft  so  that  it  may  easily  be  cut  with  the 
small  tools  employed  by  the  engraver,  who  takes  advantage  of 
this  quality  to  prepare  plates  for  his  use.  Sheets  of  steel,  of  the 
required  size  and  thickness,  are  placed  in  a box  upon  a bed  of 
iron  filings  and  pounded  oyster  shells  ; then  another  layer  of  the 
same  materials  is  placed  upon  the  plate,  and  so  on,  alternately, 
till  the  box  is  quite  full.  The  case,  thus  charged,  is  exposed  to 
the  greatest  heat  it  will  bear  without  melting,  for  several  hours. 
The  whole  is  then  allowed  to  cool  very  gradually,  and  usually 
the  result  is  a uniform  softening  of  the  steel,  which  is  now  suitable 
for  the  use  of  the  engraver.  The  outline  of  the  subject  to  be 
represented,  with  the  form  and  place  of  the  lines  which  are  to 
mark  the  shades  of  the  engraving,  are  lightly  traced  on  the 
polished  surface  of  the  plate  with  a point.  Then  a tool,  called  a 
graver,  corresponding  in  size  and  form  to  the  line  required  to  be 
traced,  is  pushed  forward,  like  a gouge,  to  cut  the  plate,  by 
which  means  little  pieces  of  the  metal  are  scooped  out.  The 
strokes  or  lines,  which  are  gradually  increased  in  number,  pro- 
duce, according  to  their  thickness  and  position,  tints  more  or  less 
varied ; and  the  most  perfect  engraving  is,  in  fact,  but  a repro- 
duction of  the  lines  on  the  plate. 

Machinery  has  been  brought  to  the  aid  of  the  engraver,  par- 
ticularly for  ruling  parallel  lines,  and  a great  invention,  to 
assist  the  engraver  of  bank-note  plates,  is  that  known  as  the 
geometrical  lathe,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  workman  can  not 
only  cut  circles  and  ovals  rapidly,  but  also,  by  certain  com- 
binations of  lines,  a great  variety  of  figures  may  be  produced. 
The  inventor  is  Cyrus  Durand,  an  engraver  and  a man  of  inge- 
nuity we  may  well  be  proud  of.  To  him  we  are  indebted  for 
several  valuable  inventions  besides  the  one  above  named,  among 
them  an  engine  lathe  for  ornamenting  watch  and  pencil  cases. 

But  to  return  to  our  subject.  There  are  various  ways  of  en- 
graving, such  as  etching,  stippling,  mezzotinto,  &c.,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  to  refer  to  these  different  modes  here.  Wood  engrav- 
ing is  the  opposite  of  that  already  described,  for  the  lines  in  a 
steel  or  copper  plate  are  scooped  out,  while  in  wood  engraving 
they  are  left  standing : that  is,  the  surplus  wood  is  cut  away, 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


67 


leaving  only  the  lines  that  represent  the  design,  and  in  this  way 
the  embellishments  of  this  book  were  first  produced.  After  they 
were  engraved,  electrotype  copies  were  taken,  to  print  from,  by 
a process  that  will  be  described  under  its  appropriate  head.  The 
advantage  that  wood  possesses  over  copper  or  steel  is,  the  sub- 
ject can  be  printed  at  the  same  time  with  the  text,  whereas  an 
impression  can  only  be  obtained  from  a plate  by  a slow  and  tedi- 
ous process.  The  plate,  after  it  is  engraved,  has  to  be  hardened 
again,  in  the  ordinary  manner  for  hardening  steel.  Then  the 
printer  heats  it  uniformly  up  to  a certain  point,  to  make  it  take 
the  ink  into  the  finer  lines  more  readily,  and  after  the  ink  has 
been  applied  with  a dauber  the  superfluous  color  is  wiped  off. 
This  is  a very  delicate  part  of  the  operation,  and  after  it  is  pro- 
perly performed,  the  plate  is  placed  on  the  press,  covered  with  a 
damp  sheet  of  paper  to  receive  the  impression,  and  over  all  four 
or  five  pieces  of  blanket  are  laid.  The  whole  is  then  submitted 
to  the  pressure  of  the  cylinder,  and  when  it  comes  out  the  paper 
is  found  to  bear  the  complete  impression  of  the  engraved  plate. 

Some  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  engraving  on  steel,  for  the 
purpose  of  printing,  were  produced  by  Albert  Durer.  There  are 
four  plates  etched  by  this  master,  impressions  of  which  exist  in 
the  British  Museum,  which,  in  all  the  books  treating  on  this  sub- 
ject, are  recorded  as  having  been  executed  in  steel;  of  these 
one  has  the  date  of  1510.  And,  we  may  also  remark,  that  not- 
withstanding its  hardness,  iron  has  not  escaped  the  chisel  of  the 
sculptor.  It  was  principally  in  Germany,  in  the  second  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  that  this  branch  of  art  was  cultivated. 
The  town  of  Augsburg  excelled  all  others.  Its  artists  in  this  de- 
partment, who  bore  the  name  of  Plattner , have  carved  with  their 
fine  chasings  in  alto-relief  a number  of  handles  of  swords  and 
daggers,  and  enriched  with  bas-relief  the  scabbards  of  swords, 
furniture  and  domestic  utensils ; and  some  even  carved  detached 
statuettes. 

Electrography  is  a new  method  of  engraving,  and  has  for  its 
principal  object  to  convert  into  an  engraving  in  relief  all  drawings 
made  with  a greasy,  a bituminous,  or  a resinous  body  upon  a me- 
tallic plate.  Amongst  all  metals,  zinc  is  the  most  proper  for  this 


68 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


kind  of  engraving,  and  its  low  price  renders  it  still  more  desira- 
ble. It  may  be  drawn  upon  with  a crayon,  with  lithographic  ink, 
the  surface  having  first  been  grained  with  sifted  sand  (after  the 
manner  of  preparing  stones  for  lithography)  or  with  any  sub- 
stance used  in  drawing  on  stone.  The  plates  once  drawn  upon 
are  prepared  in  the  way  usual  with  stones  from  which  impres- 
sions are  to  be  taken ; zinc  plates  having  often  been  employed 
instead  of  stones,  and  it  is  to  Senefelder  himself,  the  inventor  of 
the  lithographic  art,  that  the  application  is  due. 

Zinc,  in  its  natural  state,  has  a great  affinity  for  greasy  sub- 
stances, and  for  this  very  reason  can  be  easily  drawn  upon ; but 
once  prepared  by  plunging  it  for  a minute  into  a simple  decoction 
of  gall  nut,  and  afterwards  covering  it  with  a solution  of  gum 
Arabic,  this  affinity  is  lost. 

This  process  has  advantages  not  possessed  by  lithography  as 
usually  followed ; for  the  action  of  the  acid,  exercised  both  on 
the  ink  and  the  stone,  injures  the  half  tints ; but  the  decoction  of 
gall  nut,  while  it  makes  an  excellent  preparation,  exercises  no  ul- 
terior action  either  upon  the  drawing  or  the  plate. 

One  remarkable  feature  in  this  species  of  engraving  is,  it 
is  unalterable ; for  after  the  application  of  the  decoction,  the 
drawing  remains  exactly  the  same  as  when  it  came  from  the 
artist’s  hand.  And  the  importance  of  this  new  invention  is  chief- 
ly shown  by  the  facilities  which  it  offers  for  producing,  like  ordi- 
nary types,  an  almost  unlimited  number  of  impressions.  Zinc  is 
as  hard  as  copper,  and  with  copper  stereotypes  millions  of  impres- 
sions may  be  struck  off;  nor  is  there  any  reason  for  supposing 
that  zinc  stereotypes  would  prove  less  serviceable.  In  electro- 
graphy  the  work  of  the  draughtsman  is  not  more  difficult  than 
when  drawing  on  wood,  while  that  of  the  engraver  disappears, 
and  the  extraordinary  degree  of  perfection  which  can  be  obtained, 
together  with  the  surprising  celerity  with  which  it  can  meet  the 
various  exigencies  of  the  moment,  cannot  fail  to  add  to  its  im- 
portance. And  while  electrography  offers  precisely  the  same 
facilities  in  its  execution  as  lithography,  and  exceeds  it  inimitably 
in  its  powers  of  production,  and,  as  compared  with  line  engraving, 
it  has  all  the  advantages  of  a far  more  facile  execution,  of  a 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


69 


greater  variety  of  style,  resulting  from  the  use  of  crayons,  of  a 
typographical  use  of  the  press,  and  of  a faithful  representation  of 
the  artist’s  labors. 

An  interesting  operation  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  is  that 
of  forging  a bar  of  this  metal  into  knife  blades.  Long  habit  and 
constant  practice  can  alone  enable  the  workman  to  form  the 
blades  neatly  and  with  the  requisite  degree  of  precision  and 
dispatch. 

A penknife  blade  is  formed  at  two  heats ; first  the  blade , pro- 
perly so  called,  which  is  hammered  out  and  then  cut  off  the  end 
of  the  rod,  when  it  is  taken  up  with  a pair  of  tongs,  heated  again 
in  the  fire,  and  the  tang , or  part  by  which  it  is  held  while  grind- 
ing and  ultimately  to  be  fixed  into  the  haft,  is  fashioned.  The 
whole  is  then  smartly  hammered  after  it  has  ceased  to  be  soft,  in 
order  to  close  the  pores,  and  produce  the  greatest  possible  degree 
of  density ; then  having  been  struck  with  the  nail-mark  and  the 
maker’s  name,  or  some  other  device,  from  a steel  punch,  the  blade 
is  ready  for  hardening.  The  steel  springs  for  the  back,  and  iron 
scales  for  the  inner  sides  of  jointed  knives,  are  made  by  workmen 
ranking  a degree  below  the  blade  makers. 

In  forging  most  of  the  large  articles,  such  as  table  knives,  and 
edge  tools  generally,  two  men  are  required  to  manage  the  forg- 
ing operations,  the  one  managing  the  heat  (as  the  glowing  piece 
is  called)  with  Ins  left  hand,  while  he  uses  his  hammer  with  his 
right,  the  latter  wielding  a heavy  sledge  hammer,  with  which  he 
alternates  strokes  with  the  maker.  Table  knife  blades  are  com- 
posed partly  of  iron  and  partly  of  steel,  the  two  metals  being 
united  at  the  neck  or  shoulder  of  the  blade.  The  cutting  portion 
of  the  blade  is  first  hammered  out  of  a rod  of  steel ; it  is  then  cut 
off,  the  thicker  end  inserted  in  the  fire  along  with  a rod  of  iron 
brought  to  a white  heat ; the  two  pieces  are  then  welded  together, 
and  the  tang  and  bolster  (the  part  which  rests  upon  the  handle) 
are  formed. 

The  blade,  thus  properly  formed  by  the  hammer,  is  submitted 
to  the  routine  of  hardening  and  tempering.  On  the  care  and 
nicety  with  which  these  are  performed  depends  the  quality  of  the 
instrument  when  completed.  It  is  hardened  by  plunging  it  sud- 


70 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


denly,  when  red  hot,  into  cold  water ; and  to  temper  it,  it  must 
be  again  heated  till  the  surface  assumes  a violet  tinge.  The 
hardening  of  the  metal  does  not  depend  upon  its  being  immersed 
in  a liquid  of  any  kind,  but  may  be  equally  effected  by  the  appli- 
cation of  cold,  and  a thin  blade  may  be  hardened  by  placing  it 
when  heated  between  the  anvil  face  and  hammer,  if  both  are 
cold. 

The  next  process  is  the  grinding  on  a stone  that,  when  first 
put  into  the  trough,  is  about  four  feet  in  diameter  and  nine  inches 
across  the  face.  Such  a stone,  in  the  course  of  ten  weeks,  will  be 
ground  down  to  the  diameter  of  twenty  inches,  when  it  is  split 
into  two  small  stones  for  the  scissors  grinder’s  purpose. 

After  the  blade  has  been  ground  down  on  the  stone,  it  is  sub- 
jected to  a finer  grinding  on  wheels  coated  with  emery,  and  dur- 
ing this,  as  well  as  the  preceding  process,  a brilliant  stream  of 
sparks  is  elicited  from  the  steel  in  contact  with  the  grit  or  the 
emery.  The  polishing  and  buffing  is  also  performed  on  a wheel, 
covered  with  soft  leather,  dressed  either  with  fine  sand  or  very 
fine  emery.  The  grinders  are  always  liable  to  accidents  from  the 
bursting  of  stones,  which  frequently  fly  in  pieces  with  a force  that 
carries  every  thing  before  it.  To  diminish  this  danger  it  has  be- 
come a general  rule  to  affix  against  each  side  of  the  stone  a stout 
iron  disc,  or  large  circular  plate,  through  which  the  axle  passes. 
This  contrivance  tends  very  much  to  counteract  the  tendency  on 
the  part  of  the  stone  to  fly.  But  there  is  another  danger  to 
which  the  grinder  is  exposed,  and  from  which  he  cannot  well 
escape,  and  that  is,  the  continual  inhalation  of  minute  particles  of 
dust  and  ferruginous  matter  evolved  from  the  stone,  especially 
during  the  process  known  as  dry-grinding.  Among  fork  grind- 
ers it  is  very  rare  to  meet  with  an  individual  thirty-six  years  of 
age.  Various  plans  have  been  adopted  to  diminish  this  evil,  and 
while  none  of  them  have  been  entirely  successful,  the  grinders 
generally  have  been  opposed  to  the  use  of  covers  made  of  gauze, 
to  be  worn  over  the  mouth,  or  any  other  contrivance  designed 
for  their  good,  on  the  ground  that  any  thing  that  tends  to  dimin- 
ish the  danger  to  which  they  are  exposed,  would  also  deprive 
them  of  the  additional  wages  the  unhealthiness  of  their  employ- 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


*71 


ment  now  secures  to  them ; and  so  they  continue  to  inhale  the 
dust,  become  reckless,  knowing  that  they  are  doomed  to  an  early 
grave,  and  die  by  the  time  they  come  to  maturity. 

The  various  uses  to  which  iron  is  now  put  are  beyond  all  cal- 
culation, and  it  would  be  idle  for  us  to  attempt  the  enumeration 
of  all  its  excellent  qualities,  for  articles  both  ornamental  and  use- 
ful. For  the  latter  purpose  it  is  chiefly  employed,  and  while  it  is 
frequently  ornamented,  or,  rather,  covered  with  devices  that  are 
designed  to  answer  that  end*  We  rarely  see  any  thing  in  this 
metal  which  will  stand  the  test,  if  aught  save  utility  be  taken 
into  consideration.  But  no  better  evidence  of  its  adaptation  to 
ornamental  purposes  is  required  than  the  open-work  tazza,  on 
page  25,  from  the  Royal  Berlin  Foundry.  Here  we  have  in  iron, 
such  iron  as  is  daily  worked  up  in  our  foundries,  an  elaborate 
and  delicate  design^  conceived  in  good  taste  and  worthy  of  being 
produced  in  bronze.  The  forms  used  are  graceful,  the  lines  sharp 
and  clear,  and  the  effect  it  produces  at  the  first  sight  will  always 
be  lasting.  This  is  not  the  case  with  the  generality  of  castings. 
W e have  not  yet  learned  that  quantity  is  not  quality,  that  an 
excess  of  ornaments  is  a violation  of  good  taste,  and  that  what- 
ever has  nothing  to  do,  whatever  could  go  without  being  missed, 
is  not  ornament,  but  is  rather  deformity  and  incumbrance. 

As  a general  thing,  whenever  we  employ  ornaments,  and  it  is 
particularly  so  in  iron  working,  we  give  no  thought  to  the  one 
great  principle,  that  art  and  utility  must  go  hand  and  hand,  that 
there  is  no  dividing  line  between  the  two,  and  that  whatever  has 
nothing  to  do  is  a positive  incumbrance.  Without  attention, 
then,  to  the  exact  adaptation  of  our  materials  to  the  end,  and  a 
happy  blending  of  an  expression  of  beauty  with  fitness,  we  had 
better  confine  ourselves  wholly  to  such  forms  as  are  valued  only 
for  their  utility.  A few  straight  rods  of  iron  would  be  far  more 
sightly  than  many  of  the  balustrades  in  front  of  our  houses ; for 
instead  of  a meaningless  arrangement  of  angles,  curves,  and  im- 
perfectly moulded  natural  objects,  we  should  have  that  which 
betokened  strength  and  security,  with  nothing  to  mar  the  pleas- 
ure of  surveying  these  desirable  qualities.  But  if  these  same  bars 
of  iron  were  bent  into  the  graceful  and  speaking  forms  that 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


72 

marked  the  works  of  Peter  Vischer,  they  would  give  an  addition- 
al pleasure  in  that  they  bore  witness  to  the  intelligence  and  im- 
agination of  the  workman. 

That  which  is  beautiful  in  its  place  may  be  positively  ugly  if 
misapplied.  The  labor  expended  on  our  parlor  grates,  if  properly 
directed,  would  give  us  the  choicest  designs  in  place  of  the  excess 
usually  so  conspicuous,  and  which  is  forced  to  call  in  the  aid  of 
other  materials,  only  to  render  our  poverty  of  invention  the  more 
marked.  Every  thing  must  be  in  reality  what  it  appears,  is  a 
rule  with  the  best  designers ; how,  then,  can  we  accept  a design 
like  that  of  the  fire  grate  on  page  39?  The  central  portion  is 
well  conceived,  and  the  whole  is  an  excellent  example  of  fine 
casting ; but  if  we  look  at  the  design  as  a whole,  we  shall  find 
that  the  sides  are  crowded  with  a profusion  of  ornaments  which 
give  it  a confused  and  heavy  appearance,  while  the  landscape 
vignettes,  painted  in  colors  and  covered  with  j)late  glass,  are 
wholly  inadmissible.  This  is  straining  after  novelty  to  meet  a 
demand  on  the  part  of  the  public  for  that  which  is  new  and  most 
startling  in  its  effect,  and  it  is  also  exemplified  by  a chair  leg, 
which  Mrs.  Jameson  once  saw,  in  which  she  said  a winged  seraph 
was  made  to  do  duty  as  a brass  castor,  and  this  was  praised  as 
novel. 

And  here  let  us  point  to  another  abuse  of  iron,  which  is  now 
growing  rapidly  into  favor  for  building  purposes,  and  that  is,  a 
desire  to  hide  its  true  character,  by  painting  it  in  imitation  of 
marble,  and  even  wood ; as  if  the  builders  were  either  ashamed 
of  their  materials,  or  were  fearful  the  structure  would  depreciate 
in  value  if  it  were  known  that  it  was  constructed  of  any  thing  so 
durable.  Surprising  as  this  may  seem,  we  have  evidence  of  the 
fact  wherever  iron  buildings  have  been  erected. 

This  subject  is  already  receiving  attention,  and  to  no  better 
point  could  our  thoughts  be  directed.  We  build  a Gothic  church 
and  surround  it  with  an  iron  fence  formed  of  Grecian  scrolls  ; a 
Grecian  temple,  for  the  same  purpose,  supplied  with  a gallery 
supported  on  Gothic  columns.  And  wherever  we  turn  we  see 
these  incongruities,  which  are  passed  over,  instead  of  requiring 
that  a building  should  convey  but  one  prominent  idea,  carried 


v ••  -£*s  ; • • »■■  k • 

, \ . . . • ■ . .r  : .... 

. 

/•'.  M v :*  - • - -•  • - ; • v . . - ■ • ■ • 

. - ft  • 

■ • . 'M  ' ■■■• 

■ 

» 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


IS 


out  in  all  its  parts,  and  forbidding  all  combinations  of  different 
eras,  so  destructive  of  good  taste. 

And  in  all  the  articles  in  iron  which  go  to  make  up  the  whole 
catalogue  brought  to  our  notice,  there  is  uniformly  a want  of 
taste.  Hobbs,  and  Chubbs,  may  adorn  the  few  locks  and  keys 
placed  on  exhibition  in  a conspicuous  place,  but  where  can  we 
find  like  articles,  displaying  the  same  artistic  skill,  in  daily  use  ? 
In  our  iron  fences  and  railings  the  same  idea  is  repeated  over  and 
over  again,  and  our  street  lantern  posts  have  held  up  the  same 
skeleton  forms  since  the  first  introduction  of  gas,  to  attest  our 
lack  of  inventive  skill  when  a field  opens  for  a tasteful  display  of 
ornaments.  The  column  here  presented,  from  the  Royal  Berlin 
Foundry,  we  do  not  offer  as  a substitute,  but  to  show  how  readily 
iron  may  be  adapted  to  artistic  purposes.  The  shaft  rises  grace- 
fully from  a tripod  base,  and  midway  it  is  encircled  by  figures  in 
bas-relief;  and  the  flat  top  supports  an  equestrian  group.  Above 
the  central  figures  the  dark  color  of  the  iron  is  relieved  and 
gracefully  ornamented  by  an  inlaid  thread  of  silver,  wrought  into 
the  chaste  and  simple  forms  of  antique  decorations.  Objects  like 
these  we  cannot  have  at  every  corner ; but  surely  there  is  an  in- 
termediate step  between  a column  thus  artistically  proportioned, 
and  the  spindling  shafts  that  serve  alike  to  light  our  steps  by 
night  and  to  disfigure  our  streets  by  day. 


4 


CHAPTER  Y. 


BRONZE. 

THIS  compound  must  have  been  known  at  an  early  period  in 
the  history  of  the  world,  but  nowhere  in  the  Scriptures  do 
we  find  mention  made  of  it,  while  from  the  book  of  Genesis  to 
that  of  Revelations,  reference  is  constantly  made  to  brass,  which 
is  with  us  a different  metal.  We  designate  as  bronze  a com- 
pound  of  copper  and  tin,  and  as  brass  a compound  of  copper  and 
zinc ; but  the  ancients  knew  nothing  of  zinc,  hence  their  brass 
must  have  been  in  reality  our  bronze,  and  all  the  specimens  ex- 
humed in  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Greece,  confirm  this  when  sub- 
jected to  a test,  by  yielding  only  copper  and  tin,  with  an  occa- 
sional admixture  of  some  more  precious  metal.  Less  than  a 
century  ago,  zinc  was  not  considered  as  a metal  at  all,  and  by 
some  it  was  believed  to  be  a compound  of  iron  and  tin,  just  as 
the  alchemists  of  old  considered  tin  to  be  a mixture  of  silver  and 
lead.  The  ancients  certainly  had  mines  from  which  they  dug  the 
ore  of  zinc,  regarded  by  all  as  an  earth,  which,  combined  with 
copper,  produced  a gold-colored  metal.  These  mines  were  held 
in  high  estimation,  and  when  they  became  exhausted  the  loss  was 
deeply  regretted,  as  it  was  supposed  that  the  metal  could  never 
be  found  again. 

Corinthian  brass  ranked  very  high,  and  its  superiority  was 
attributed  to  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  it  contained.  The 
tradition  is  that  whem  Mummius  destroyed  Corinth,  146  B.  C., 


GROUP  IN  BRONZE. 


11 


BRONZE. 


15 


the  great  conflagration  melted  all  the  statues  in  the  city,  and  the 
compound  formed  the  highly  valued  metal  long  known  as  Corin- 
thian brass.  But  history  does  not  sustain  this,  for  Mummius 
caused  all  the  valuable  statues  found  there  to  be  carried  to  Rome, 
and  long  anterior  to  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  his  troops, 
Corinthian  brass  was  well  known  and  highly  prized.  The  speci 
mens  of  Corinthian  brass  that  have  been  analyzed  have  yielded 
copper  and  silver.  These  two  metals  readily  combine  and  form 
an  alloy,  but  it  is  not  so  with  copper  and  gold,  and  the  attempts 
to  combine  these  two  in  any  quantity,  have  failed,  the  copper 
uniformly  rejecting,  in  cooling,  all  but  a small  per  centage  of 
gold. 

Copper,  the  basis  of  the  compound  we  have  now  under  con- 
sideration, is  widely  spread  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  man, 
in  all  ages,  has  adapted  it  to  his  wants.  It  was  one  of  the  great- 
est articles  of  commerce  with  the  Phoenicians,  who  derived  a 
large  supply  from  the  mines  of  Nubia,  that  at  one  time  supplied 
the  whole  of  the  known  world,  and  combined  with  it  the  tin  ob- 
tained from  the  islands  of  Great  Britain.  It  was  used  by  some 
of  the  northern  nations  of  Europe,  in  the  fabrication  of  weapons, 
at  a period  and  under  circumstances  when  steel  appears  to  have 
been  more  precious  than  gold.  This  has  been  illustrated  in  Den- 
mark, by  the  opening  of  many  Scandinavian  tumuli  of  very  re- 
mote ages,  and  from  which  have  been  collected  specimens  of 
knives,  daggers,  swords,  and  implements  of  industry,  which  are 
preserved  in  the  museum  at  Copenhagen.  There  are  tools  of 
various  kinds,  formed  of  flint,  or  other  hard  substance,  in  shape 
resembling  our  wedges,  axes,  chisels,  hammers,  and  knives,  the 
blades  of  which  are  of  gold,  whilst  an  edge  of  iron  is  attached 
for  the  purpose  of  cutting.  Some  of  these  tools  are  formed 
principally  of  copper,  with  edges  of  iron,  and  in  many  of  these 
implements,  the  profuse  application  of  copper  and  gold,  when 
contrasted  with  the  parsimony  evident  in  the  expenditure  of 
iron,  seems  to  prove  that  at  that  unknown  period,  and  among 
the  unknown  people  who  raised  these  tumuli,  gold  as  well  as  cop- 
per were  much  more  common  products  than  iron. 

The  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  were  wholly  unacquainted  with 


76 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  use  of  iron,  and  their  carvings  were  all  wrought  with  copper 
tools.  They,  however,  contrived  to  harden  them  with  an  alloy 
of  from  three  to  seven  per  cent,  of  tin.  It,  nevertheless,  seems 
incomprehensible  how  their  extensive  works  in  granite,  porphyry, 
and  other  obstinate  materials,  could  be  carried  on  with  such  aids. 
The  Hindoos,  long  anterior  to  their  intercourse  with  Europeans, 
made  their  idols  from  copper.  The  Egyptians,  although  not  ig- 
norant of  iron,  were  compelled  by  a variety  of  circumstances  to 
use  copper  tools,  and  with  these  many  of  their  gigantic  labors 
were  effected.  They  must  of  necessity  have  had  some  means  of 
hardening  the  metal ; yet  it  is  a singular  fact,  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a few  bronze  weapons  of  comparatively  late  date,  the 
chisels  and  other  implements  found  in  the  monuments  and  at  the 
quarries,  are  pure  copper. 

The  North  American  Indians  evidently  obtained  their  supply 
of  copper  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  where  evidences  of 
their  mining  operations  are  frequently  brought  to  light.  The 
great  Ontonagon  mass  of  virgin  copper,  now  deposited  at  Wash- 
ington, when  found,  exhibited  marks  of  having  had  considerable 
portions  cut  from  it,  and  the  ground  around  it  was  strewed  with 
fragments  of  stone  axes  and  hammers,  which  had  been  broken  in 
endeavoring  to  detach  portions  of  the  mass.  It  is  thought  that 
this  mass  was  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  ancient  miners. 

The  greatest  known  deposit  of  copper  in  Europe,  discovered 
in  1561,  is  in  Cornwall,  England,  where  there  are  upwards  of 
fifty  mines,  some  of  which  have  been  worked  since  the  reign  of 
William  III.  The  mines  of  Sweden  are  also  famous  for  their 
copper.  Many  copper  mines  have  reached  an  extraordinary 
depth.  The  Tresavean  mine  has  reached  the  extended  depth  of 
two  thousand  one  hundred  and  twelve  feet  under  the  surface, 
and  about  seventeen  hundred  feet  below  the  sea.  The  Eselschact 
mine,  at  Huttenberg,  in  Bohemia,  now  inaccessible,  was  deeper 
than  any  other  mine,  being  no  less  than  three  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  seventy-eight  feet  beloAV  the  surface.  Its  depth  is 
only  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  less  than  the  height  of  Vesuvius, 
and  it  is  eight  times  greater  than  the  height  of  the  pyramid  of 
Cheops. 


BRONZE. 


11 


The  ores  in  Cornwall  are  found  both  in  granite  and  slate  rocks, 
and  when  they  are  brought  to  the  surface,  often  from  a depth  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty  fathoms,  they  are  prepared  for  the  smelt- 
ing house  by  a process  of  stamping  by  means  of  machinery,  which 
reduces  the  ore  to  a powder;  it  is  then  subjected  to  a washing 
which  separates  the  earthy  matter  from  the  metallic  portion. 
Then  follows  the  roasting  of  the  ore,  which  is  conducted  after 
various  ways,  either  by  roasting  in  the  open  air,  which  is  the  most 
simple  process;  roasting  executed  between  little  walls,  which 
may  be  called  case-roasting ; or,  roasting  in  a furnace  very  like 
to  that  in  which  porcelain  is  baked.  When  this  is  done,  the 
usual  way  is  to  place  the  fuel  on  the  exterior  of  the  furnace,  in  a 
kind  of  brick  shaft,  and  the  flames  traverse  the  broken  ore  with 
which  the  furnace  is  filled.  In  the  flues  the  sulphur  that  is  vola- 
tilized is  collected.  All  that  remains  of  the  ore  is  smelted  in  con- 
tact with  the  fuel.  The  iron  present  in  the  ore,  not  being  so 
easily  reduced  or  fused  as  the  copper,  remains  in  the  scoria  while 
the  copper  is  run  out.  Copper  often  requires  to  be  repeatedly 
fused,  and  even  then  it  may  still  be  alloyed  with  portions  of 
metals  which  are  not  volatile,  and  are  of  easy  fusion ; thus,  the 
copper  of  commerce  is  never  altogether  pure,  but  generally  con- 
tains a little  lead,  and  a small  portion  of  antimony.  The  carbon- 
ates of  copper,  reduced  by  fusion  in  contact  with  the  fuel,  afford 
a pure  copper,  as  does  also  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
which  is  met  with  in  some  mines,  the  copper  being  precipitated 
in  its  metallic  state,  by  immersing  iron  in  the  solution,  and  it  is 
afterwards  fused.  In  sheathing  copper  there  is  a great  difference, 
and  this  is  all  traceable  to  the  smelting  process ; for  if  every  for- 
eign substance,  but  silver,  is  not  removed,  corrosiveness  easily 
takes  place ; the  salt  water  acting  much  more  readily  on  the  iron 
and  other  foreign  substances  than  on  the  pure  copper. 

Native  copper,  like  the  metal,  is  of  a red  color,  but  frequently 
tarnishes.  Its  lustre  is  metallic ; it  is  flexible,  ductile,  and  malle- 
able, and  its  fracture  is  backley.  It  is  found  in  the  veins  of  primi- 
tive rocks,  and  of  the  oldest  secondary.  Occasionally  it  is  accom- 
panied by  several  of  the  ores  of  copper,  and  sometimes  those  of 
other  metals,  The  Cliff  mine,  Lake  Superior,  is  one  of  the  most 


78 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


remarkable  known  for  the  enormous  masses  of  native  copper  that 
it  contains.  One  of  these  masses,  after  it  was  detached,  could 
not  have  weighed  less  than  fifty  tons,  yielding  more  than  ninety 
per  cent,  of  pure  copper — the  only  impurity  being  a little  rock 
attached  to  the  surface  and  rarely  included  in  the  copper.* 

These  masses  of  pure  copper  are  removed,  by  finding  some 
place  where  a hole  may  be  made  in  the  rock,  and  then  firing  a 
heavy  blast,  tamped  by  sand.  This  starts  the  copper  from  the  wall 
rock,  and  sometimes  detaches  it  entirely.  The  masses  are  then 
cut  up,  by  means  of  steel  chisels,  driven  by  blows  from  a sledge 
hammer ; one  man  holding  the  chisel  while  the  other  strikes  with 
the  sledge.  A groove  is  thus  mortised  out  across  the  mass,  and 
then  a series  of  ribbons  of  it,  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  are 
cut  out,  until  the  channel  divides  the  mass.  In  this  way  it  is  cut 
into  portions  that  weigh  from  a ton  to  a ton  and  a half  each.  In 
commencing  the  operation  short  chisels  are  used,  whereby  much 
power  is  saved  that  would  be  lost  by  a long  chisel,  the  elasticity 
of  the  latter  diminishing  the  blow.  Chisels  of  greater  length  are 
supplied  as  the  work  progresses  in  depth,  until,  in  some  of  the 
thick  masses,  one  of  four  feet  is  required.  This  is  the  case  fre- 
quently, as  masses  three  and  three  and  a half  feet  thick  are  often 
cut  out. 

In  the  copper  ore  of  that  region  there  is  much  silver.  The 
larger  portions  are  picked  out  by  hand.  Where  there  is  only  a 
moderate  quantity  of  silver  in  copper,  it  is  not  extracted,  but  the 
copper,  when  fused,  is  greatly  improved,  for  the  silver  prevents 
its  rapid  corrosion  by  sea  water,  and  it  gives  it  more  strength, 
and  renders  it  more  valuable  for  making  bronze  cannon,  the 
metal  proving  unusually  tough  and  strong.  It  has  also  proved 
of  excellent  quality  for  making  church  bells,  the  silver  greatly 
improving  the  tone ; but  when  a large  proportion  of  silver  exists 
in  combination  with  the  copper,  it  makes  it  too  hard. 

* A mass  of  copper,  forty-six  feet  long  and  eighteen  feet  wide,  and  of  a thick- 
ness varying  from  three  to  nine  feet,  has  been  thrown  out  at  the  Minnesota  mine. 
It  contains  about  five  hundred  tons  of  pure  copper,  worth,  when  prepared  for 
market,  about  three  hundred  thousand  dollars. 


BKONZE. 


79 


Copper  may  be  purified  by  melting  one  hundred  parts  with 
ten  parts  of  copper  scales  (black  oxide),  which  are  the  product  of 
every  large  manufactory  where  the  metal  is  worked,  along  with 
ten  parts  of  ground  bottle-glass,  or  other  flux ; and  after  the  cop- 
per has  been  kept  in  fusion  for  half  an  hour,  it  will  be  found  at 
the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  perfectly  pure ; but  the  iron,  lead, 
arsenic,  &c.,  with  which  the  metal  is  usually  combined,  will  be 
oxidized  by  the  scales,  and  will  be  dissolved  in  the  flux  or  be 
volatilized.  For  this  discovery  the  Society  of  Arts  awarded  a 
gold  medal. 

Copper  has  many  singular  properties.  Try  to  drill  it,  try  to 
file  it,  try  to  cut  it,  to  plane,  to  planish,  or  to  roll  it  out,  or  try  to 
stretch  it  over  a mandrel.  These  things  may  all  be  done,  but 
only  by  an  expert  hand.  In  one  case  you  must  soothe  the  surface 
with  oil,  or  with  tallow  and  wax ; in  another,  the  least  smear  of 
oil  causes  it  to  buckle  up,  and  all  is  spoilt.  Under  one  operation 
a bathing  of  milk  is  good ; in  another,  a touch  with  the  work- 
man’s saliva  is  more  effective  than  any  thing  else.  The  tool  ap- 
plied to  it  must  be  neither  hard  nor  soft,  beyond  the  limits  of  a 
straw  tempering.  Anneal  it,  and  kindly  it  comes  forth  from  the 
furnace  and  yields  itself  to  the  workman’s  will,  but  indiscreetly 
strike  it  a few  times  with  a hammer,  and  in  an  instant  the  entire 
mass  undergoes  a transformation,  and  becomes  sonorous,  elastic, 
non-plastic,  in  a word — unmanageable. 

If  the  least  drop  of  water  touch  the  melted  ore,  it  will  fly 
about  like  shot  from  a gun.  A grain  of  copper  dissolved  in  alka- 
li, as  pearlash  or  soda,  will  give  a sensible  color  to  more  than  five 
hundred  thousand  times  its  weight  in  water.  Copper  may  be 
forged  into  any  shape,  but  will  not  bear  more  than  a red  heat, 
and  frequent  heatings  are  required.  At  a white  heat  it  melts, 
and  if  slowly  cooled  it  may  be  crystallized.  At  a high  heat  it 
burns  with  a green  flame.  Exposed  to  the  air,  at  a natural  tem- 
perature, it  is  converted  into  a green  rust,  which  is  the  oxide 
combined  with  a portion  of  carbonic  acid.  In  alloying  gold  for 
coins,  twenty-two  carats  of  gold  and  two  of  copper  are  fused  to- 
gether; and  a pound  troy  of  silver,  of  two  hundred  and  forty 


80 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


pennyweights,  has  eighteen  pennyweights  subtracted,  and  the 
same  quantity  of  copper  substituted  * in  its  place. 

Copper  is  much  more  malleable  than  it  is  ductile,  so  that  far 
finer  leaves  may  be  obtained  than  wire.  In  tenacity  it  yields  to 
iron,  but  surpasses  gold,  silver,  and  platinum  in  this  respect. 
Nitric  acid  acts  on  copper  with  great  energy,  the  metal  attracting 
a portion  of  its  oxygen,  nitric  acid  gas  being  disengaged,  and  the 
oxide  combining  with  the  remaining  acid.  This  solution,  when 
evaporated,  affords  prismatic  crystals  of  a deep  green  color. 
Acetic  acid,  or  vinegar,  forms  an  important  compound  with  cop- 
per. Plates  of  the  metal  are  exposed  to  its  fumes  and  a crust 
soon  forms,  which  is  the  verdigris  of  commerce.  With  nearly  all 
the  acids  copper  combines,  and  most  of  the  salts  have  a green  or 
blue  tint.  Thus,  when  submitted  to  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid, 
a solution  of  a blue  color  is  obtained,  which,  when  corporated, 
crystals  in  the  form  of  rhomboidal  prism  are  produced,  and  this 
salt  is  the  blue  vitriol  of  commerce.  The  salts  of  copper  are  poi- 
sonous, and  from  the  fact  that  albumen  will  precipitate  the  oxide, 
in  which  state  the  precipitate  is  almost  inert,  the  white  of  eggs 
has  been  recommended  as  the  antidote. 

Copper  and  arsenic  form  a white-colored  alloy,  sometimes  used 
for  the  scales  of  thermometers,  barometers,  <fcc.  To  form  this  com- 
pound, successive  layers  of  copper  clippings  and  white  arsenic  are 
put  into  an  earthen  crucible.  If  two  parts  of  arsenic  and  five  parts 
of  copper  have  been  used,  the  resulting  compound  commonly  con- 
tains one-tenth  of  metallic  arsenic,  It  is  white,  slightly  ductile, 
denser,  and  more  fusible  than  copper,  and  without  aotion  on  oxy- 
gen at  the  ordinary  temperature ; but  at  a higher  heat  it  is  de- 
composed with  exhalations  of  arsenious  acid.  If  brass  plates  are 
used  for  the  same  purpose,  they  may  be  silvered  with  a composi- 
tion of  chloride  of  silver,  chalk  and  pearlash. 

* When  the  copper  coins  of  William  III.  appeared,  a slight  tinge  in  the  color 
of  the  metal  excited  the  suspicion  of  those  accustomed  to  examine  such  things, 
that  it  contained  gold,  which  proved  to,  ho  the  fact ; hence  their  real  value  was 
greater  than  that  for  which  they  passed  current,  and  they  were  speedily  collected 
and  melted  down  by  the  manufacturers,  principally  as  an  alloy  of  gold,  whereby 
every  particle  of  that  metal  which  they  contained  was  turned  to  account. 


BRONZE. 


81 


The  white  copper  of  China  is  found  to  consist  of  one  half  cop- 
per, and  the  other  half  in  nearly  equal  proportions  of  zinc  and 
nickel,  with  a small  quantity  of  iron.  It  costs  in  China  about  one 
quarter  of  its  weight  in  silver.  The  alloy  is  nearly  silver-white, 
and  is  very  sonorous.  It  is  malleable  at  a natural  temperature 
and  at  a red  heat,  but  when  heated  to  whiteness  it  becomes 
brittle. 

Yellow  brass  is  composed  of  seventy  parts  of  copper  and  thirty 
of  zinc.  The  specific  gravity  of  brass  is  greater  than  the  mean 
density  of  its  constituents ; but  if  heated  and  quickly  cooled,  it 
becomes  somewhat  less  dense.  It  is  not  malleable  unless  hot ; 
when  cold  it  breaks,  and  after  it  has  been  melted  twice  is  no 
longer  in  a condition  to  bear  the  hammer  at  all,  and  to  work  it 
lead  is  added,  as  also  a small  proportion  of  tin. 

Brass  is  manufactured  in  several  ways,  according  to  the  use  to 
which  it  is  to  be  applied.  The  finest  kind  is  made  of  what  is 
known  as  shot  copper.  This  is  granulated,  which  peculiarity  is 
produced  by  pouring  the  melted  copper  into  a cistern  of  water, 
through  a ladle  full  of  holes ; and  the  water  must  be  hot  or  cold, 
according  to  the  form  wished  in  the  grains.  When  it  is  hot, 
round  grains,  the  description  used  in  making  brass,  are  obtained, 
and  are  called  bean  shot.  When  the  copper  falls  into  cold  water, 
perpetually  renewed,  the  granulations,  which  are  irregular  and 
thin,  are  called  feathered  shot. 

The  calamine,  the  ore  of  zinc  usually  employed  in  connection 
with  the  copper,  is  reduced  to  a fine  powder  in  the  stamping 
mills ; it  is  then  sifted  and  washed,  to  free  it  from  all  impurities. 
It  is  next  mixed  with  pieces  of  charcoal  or  small  coal,  and  sub- 
jected to  a process  of  calcination,  when  it  is  again  ground,  with 
charcoal  mixed  with  the  copper,  and  firmly  compressed  into  a 
crucible.  The  compound  is  exposed  in  a brass  furnace  to  a de- 
gree of  heat  sufficient  to  melt  the  copper,  but  as  the  calamine  is 
very  volatile,  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  its  escape  by  luting  on 
the  cover  of  the  crucible  with  a mixture  of  sand,  clay,  and  animal 
matter.  By  a cautious  management  of  the  fire,  and  after  a con- 
tinuous exposure  to  the  operation  of  the  heat  for  a period  varying 
from  ten  to  twenty  hours,  the  mass  is  thoroughly  united,  when 
4* 


82 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  melted  brass  is  poured  into  cast-iron  ingot  moulds,  and  is 
ready  for  market. 

Red  brass  is  produced  by  using  not  more  than  twenty  per 
cent,  of  zinc.  Prince  Rupert’s  metal,  as  it  is  called,  is  made  of 
equal  parts  of  copper  and  zinc.  Pinchbeck  is  formed  by  adding 
two  parts  of  copper  to  yellow  brass.  This  metal  was  so  called 
from  one  Christopher  Pinchbeck,  a celebrated  astronomical  and 
musical  clock-maker,  who  invented  it,  and  for  some  time  retained 
the  secret.  Speculum  metal,  employed  for  the  reflectors  of  teles- 
copes, is  composed  of  one  hundred  parts  of  tin  and  two  hundred 
and  fifteen  of  copper.  Or-molu,  or  mosaic  gold,  is  made  by  com- 
bining fifty-two  or  fifty-five  parts  of  zinc  with  forty-five  or  forty- 
eight  parts  of  copper.  The  patent  for  this  beautiful  alloy,  which 
now  enters  so  largely  into  the  art-manufactures  of  Europe,  was 
secured  in  1825.  In  preparing  it,  equal  parts  of  copper  and  zinc 
are  melted  together  at  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  copper 
will  fuse,  and  after  these  are  stirred  together,  a further  quantity 
of  zinc  is  added  in  small  portions,  until  the  alloy  in  the  melting 
pot  becomes  of  the  right  color.  If  the  temperature  of  the  copper 
be  too  high,  a portion  of  the  zinc  will  fly  off  in  vapor,  and  the 
result  will  be  merely  spelter  or  hard  solder ; but  if  the  operation 
be  carried  on  at  as  low  a heat  as  possible,  the  alloy  will  assume 
first  a brassy  yellow  color,  then,  by  the  introduction  of  small 
portions  of  zinc,  it  will  take  a purple  or  violet  color,  and  will  ulti- 
mately become  pure  white,  which  is  the  appearance  of  the  proper 
compound  in  its  pure  state.  It  may  then  be  poured  into  ingots, 
but  as  it  is  difficult  to  preserve  its  character  when  re-melted,  it 
should  be  cast  directly  into  the  figure  moulds.  The  mosaic  gold 
of  the  old  chemists,  is  sulphuret  of  tin. 

Cannon  metal  is  composed  of  ninety  parts  of  copper  and  ten 
of  tin,  to  which  must  be  added  a small  quantity  of  zinc  and  lead, 
at  the  second  melting.  Bell  metal  consists  of  three  parts  of  cop- 
per to  one  part  of  tin,  and  in  connection  with  these  gold  and  silver 
have  also  been  employed,  but  always  in  small  quantities,  to  enrich 
the  tone.  The  proportions  of  bronze  are,  copper  eiglity-two  parts, 
zinc  eighteen,  pewter  three,  lead  one  and  a half.  This  bronze  ad- 


■ 


BRONZE  GAS  BRACKET.  p#  24 


BRONZE. 


83 


mits  of  gilding,  but  if  there  be  too  much  copper,  it  takes  more 
gold ; if  too  much  zinc,  the  fine  yellow  in  the  gold  color  is  lost. 
The  proportions  of  large  objects,  such  as  the  column  of  July,  at 
Paris,  are,  copper  91.43:  zinc  5.53:  pewter  1.70:  lead  1.37 — 
100.00. 

Articles  of  bronze  gilt  are  usually  of  a light  and  graceful  de- 
sign, presenting  a varied  form,  that  will  display  the  gilding  in 
strong  contrast  with  the  darker  ground  of  the  bronze,  without 
injury  to  the  general  effect.  The  chandelier  here  presented,  and 
which  is  of  American  manufacture,  combines  these  qualities.  The 
bronze  of  which  it  is  made  has  a tint  of  rich  deep  green,  relieved 
by  the  gilding  applied  to  the  ornamental  parts. 

And  here  we  may  remark,  that  twenty  years  ago,  all  the  finer 
chandeliers  and  lamps  used  in  this  country  were  imported  from 
Europe;  but  at  the  Exposition  in  London,  in  1851,  these  articles, 
of  American  manufacture,  were  highly  approved  for  their  light- 
ness and  purity  of  design.  On  the  opposite  page  we  give  another 
sample  of  these  goods.  It  is  a gas  bracket  of  four  lights,  though 
only  two  are  given  in  the  engraving.  The  bronze  is  heavily  gilt, 
and  the  ornaments,  which  are  most  appropriate,  are  good  speci- 
mens of  the  style  known  as  the  Renaissance. 

In  melting  bronze  much  care  is  required  to  prevent  the  tin, 
which  is  a volatile  metal,  from  being  lost.  An  incautious  founder 
might  commence  his  work  with  a bronze  of  the  best  proportions, 
and  conclude  with  nearly  pure  copper — the  tin  having  passed 
off  in  the  oxide  of  tin  in  the  furnace.  A curious  example  of 
this  is  given  in  the  column  of  the  Place  Vendome,  Paris.  The 
government  supplied  gun  metal,  which  contained  more  than  ten 
per  cent,  of  tin.  An  analysis  of  a portion  of  metal  taken  from 
the  base  gave  only  six  per  cent. ; from  the  shaft  of  the  column 
only  three  per  cent. ; while  the  metal  of  the  capital  was  found  to 
be  nearly  pure  copper. 

The  surface  of  the  melting  metals  should  be  covered  with 
small  charcoal  or  coke ; and  when  the  zinc  is  added,  it  should 
be  dexterously  thrust  to  the  bottom  of  the  melted  copper.  Im- 
mediately after  stirring  the  melted  mass,  so  as  to  incorporate  its 


84 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


ingredients,  it  should  be  poured  out  into  the  moulds.  In  general, 
the  metals  most  easily  altered  by  the  fire,  as  the  tin,  should  be 
put  in  last,  and  the  cooling  in  the  moulds  should  be  as  quick 
as  possible,  to  prevent  the  risk  of  the  metals  separating  from 
each  other,  in  the  order  of  their  density,  as  they  are  very  apt 
to  do. 


O' 

p.  83. 


ENAMELLED  CHANDELIER. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


BKONZE  STATUES. 

The  art  of  casting  bronze  statues  is  traced  to  the  remotest  an- 
tiquity, but  it  was  not  till  Rcecus  of  Samos  invented  modeling 
that  it  began  to  display  the  refinement  which  marked  the  produc- 
tions of  a later  period.  In  Samos,  it  is  supposed,  statues  worthy 
of  the  name  were  first  cast  in  bronze,  and  it  was  there  that  Theo- 
dorus,  who  shares  with  Rcecus  the  honor  of  improving  the  method 
of  casting,  made  the  statue  of  the  Pythian  Apollo,  for  the  temple 
of  that  island.  It  was  made  in  two  parts — half  at  Samos  and  half 
at  Ephesus — and  then  brought  together.  The  colossal  statue  at 
Rhodes,  reckoned  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  the 
work  of  Chares  of  Lindus,  was  made  290  B.  C.,  and  twelve  years 
were  employed  in  its  construction.  Chares  had  scarcely  half  fin- 
ished his  work,  when  he  found  that  he  had  expended  all  the 
money  received  for  the  whole,  which  overwhelmed  him  so  com- 
pletely that  he  destroyed  himself,  and  the  task  of  completing  it 
was  assigned  to  Laches,  one  of  his  fellow  countrymen.  It  wtis  of 
bronze,  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  was  dedicated  to  Apollo. 
The  figure  stood  upon  two  moles,  so  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
harbor  that  a vessel  could  pass  between  the  extended  legs.  A 
winding  staircase  ran  to  the  top  of  the  statue,  from  which  point 
the  shores  of  Syria  could  be  discerned,  and  the  ships  that  sailed 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt.  After  standing  sixty-six  years  it  was 
thrown  down  by  an  earthquake,  and  was  finally  destroyed  by  the 


86 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Saracens,  A.  D.  672,  and  the  metal,  no  less  than  seven  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  pounds  in  weight,  was  sold  to  a Jewish 
merchant,  of  Edessa,  who  transported  it  to  Alexandria.  Nero 
had  a statue  of  himself,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  high,  cast,  and 
Zenodorus  was  called  to  Rome  for  that  purpose.  On  the  down- 
fall of  that  emperor  it  was  dedicated  to  the  sun.  The  first  eques- 
trian statue  founded  at  one  cast,  was  that  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  1699, 
erected  in  the  Place  Vendome  in  1724,  and  destroyed  in  1792. 
It  contained  sixty  thousand  pounds  of  metal,  and  was  the  most 
colossal  ever  made.  The  first  equestrian  statue  erected  in  Eng- 
land was  that  of  Charles  I.  in  1678.  It  was  cast  by  Le  Sueur,  at 
the  expense  of  the  Howard- Arundel  family,  in  1633.  During  the 
civil  war  parliament  sold  it  to  John  River,  a brazier,  with  strict 
orders  to  break  it  to  pieces ; but  he  concealed  it  under  ground 
till  the  restoration,  when  it  was  erected  in  1678  on  a pedestal  ex- 
ecuted by  Grinlin  Gibbons. 

Bronze  statues  are  not  cast  solid,  and  the  mould  prepared  for 
the  purpose  is  made  of  three  j)arts — the  core,  the  wax,  and  the 
cement  or  shell.  The  core  is  the  centre  of  the  figure,  which  is  a 
rude  representation  of  it,  as  will  be  observed  in  the  darker  por- 
tion of  this  cut.  When  it  is  intended  to  cast  a colossal  statue, 
this  core  is  supported  by  a framework  of  iron.  The  rude  outline 
statue,  as  we  might  call  it,  is  usually  formed  of  a mixture  of  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  brick  dust,  and  a tenacious  clay,  which,  when  con- 
structed, is  thoroughly  dried  in  an  oven.  The  core  is  then  co- 
vered with  a layer  of  wax  (represented  in  the  cut  by  the  white 
line)  which  is  in  no  part  less  than  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
artist  now  works  out  his  design  with  great  care,  the  perfection 
of  the  finished  work  depending  entirely  upon  the  degree  of  excel- 
lence with  which  this  portion  of  the  task  is  executed.  When  all 
is  finished,  the  last  coat  or  shell  (outside  the  white  line)  is  given. 
This  is  laid  on  with  great  care,  and  it  is  composed  of  some  mate- 
rial that  will  fill  with  accuracy  every  fine  line,  and  set , or  become 
solid,  without  suffering  any  sensible  distortion  from  unequal 
shrinking.  It  is  generally  composed  of  clay  and  pounded  cruci- 
bles. These  materials  are  dried,  very  finely  powdered,  sifted, 
and  then  mixed  to  the  consistency  of  thick  cream  with  water 


PKOOESS  OF  CASTING  IN  BKONZE.  p.  86. 


' 

- - - > 

■ 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


87 


This  mixture  is  spread  over  the  figure  in  a series  of  layers,  until 
the  required  thickness  is  obtained,  which  varies  with  the  size  of 
the  casting.  After  which  a very  thick  coating  of  a coarser  com- 
position is  applied,  and  the  whole  firmly  fixed  in  a properly  pre- 
pared grate,  when  a fire  is  kindled,  by  which  the  wax  is  melted 
and  allowed  to  escape  through  openings  left  for  that  purpose, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  clay  is  thoroughly  dried. 

Another  process  is,  to  model  the  figure  first  in  clay,  and  then 
take  a cast  in  the  usual  way.  Of  this  cast  a cast  is  taken  in  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  and  when  it  is  sufficiently  dry  it  is  cut  into  sections, 
and  carefully  removed  from  the  figure.  The  moulding  wax  is 
rolled  out  into  pieces  of  the  most  uniform  thickness,  and  cut  into 
thin  strips.  The  workman  now  applies  the  wax  to  the  several 
sections  of  the  mould,  pressing  it  with  his  tools  into  every  part ; 
or,  in  some  cases,  castings  in  wax  are  made  in  the  moulds. 
Whichever  way  is  adopted,  the  wax  having  received  the  impres- 
sion of  the  several  parts,  is  applied  carefully  to  the  core  and 
joined  together,  proceeding  from  the  feet  upward,  and  filling  up 
every  space,  as  the  work  progresses,  with  a liquid  cement.  Thus 
the  form  of  the  statue  is  always  made  out  in  wax,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wax,  between  every  part  of  the  core  and  the  shell, 
regulates  the  quantity  of  metal  that  the  statue  will  contain. 

When  the  wax  is  melted  out,  the  shell  and  the  core  would 
fall  together,  but  for  a provision  which  is  made  by  adjusting 
pieces  of  metal  in  the  process  of  putting  up  the  parts,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  this. 

To  dry  the  mould  it  is  subjected  to  a temperature  of  340°  or 
350°  Fahrenheit’s  thermometer.  It  is  then  placed  in  the  casting 
pit  and  brought  in  communication  with  the  furnace,  when  the 
metal  is  allowed  to  flow,  and  it  at  once  fills  the  mould.  In  large 
castings  it  was  formerly  the  practice  to  cast  the  parts  separately, 
and  unite  the  sections  afterwards  by  pouring  fused  metal  into  the 
joints,  but  now  it  is  usual  to  cast  the  whole  work  at  once. 

After  the  casting  has  been  completed,  and  time  has  been  al- 
lowed it  to  cool,  it  is  uncovered  and  brought  to  the  light,  when 
all  the  superfluous  portions  of  the  metal  have  to  be  cut  away,  and 
the  final  finish  is  then  given.  This  finishing  demands  the  eye  of 


88 


ART-MANTJFACTUEES. 


an  artist  to  guide  the  hand  of  the  artisan.  In  Europe  it  has  long 
been  the  practice  to  intrust  this  portion  of  the  work  to  artist- 
workmen — men  who  have  been  educated  in  the  industrial  schools 
at  the  same  time  as  artists  and  artisans. 

The  art  of  casting  and  chasing  in  bronze  was  cultivated  in 
Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  during  the  whole  artistic  period  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  century 
castings  were  produced,  but  the  works  that  have  come  down  to 
us  from  that  period  are  more  generally  composed  of  gold,  silver, 
and  enamelled  copper.  It  was  during  the  latter  part  of  this  peri- 
od that  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  received  his  education  in  art,  and  on 
the  opening  of  the  fifteenth  century  (1403),  he  received  the  com- 
mission for  the  celebrated  gates  of  the  Baptistery  of  St.  John  at 
Florence,  which,  when  completed,  Michael  Angelo  said  were 
worthy  to  be  the  gates  of  Paradise. 

Ghiberti  was  son-in-law  to  Bartoluccio,  and  received  from  that 
skilful  artist  the  first  principles  of  the  arts  of  design.  When 
scarcely  twenty  years  of  age,  and  having  just  left  the  workshop 
of  his  father-in-law  to  go  to  Rimini,  he  was  recalled  to  Florence 
by  the  latter,  to  offer  himself  to  the  guild  of  merchants  in  that 
city,  as  a candidate  for  the  execution  of  the  work  above  named. 
This  was  in  1401.  Ghiberti  had  to  contend  with  powerful  rivals ; 
among  whom  Brunelleschi,  Donatello,  and  Jacopo  della  Quercia 
were  the  most  esteemed.  But,  directed  by  Bartoluccio,  who 
even  assisted  him,  according  to  Vasari,  in  the  execution  of  the 
piece  for  competition,  Ghiberti  produced  so  fine  a work  that 
Brunelleschi  and  Donatello  acknowledged  themselves  vanquished. 
The  judges  ratified  the  disinterested  decision  of  those  great  art- 
ists, and  Ghiberti  was  charged  with  the  execution  of  these  gates, 
by  which  his  name  has  been  immortalized.  The  bas-relief  of 
Ghiberti,  still  preserved  in  the  cabinet  of  bronzes  of  the  Florence 
Gallery,  was  admirable  in  design  and  composition ; yet,  in  these 
respects,  that  of  Brunelleschi,  to  be  seen  in  the  same  cabinet,  was 
in  no  degree  inferior.  Ghiberti  owed  his  victory  to  the  exquisite 
and  finished  execution  of  his  bronze,  which  had  been  completed 
and  retouched  with  all  the  care  which  good  goldsmiths  then  be- 
stowed upon  the  most  delicate  specimens  of  their  art ; and  it  may 


13 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


89 


be  safely  asserted  that  it  was  to  his  talent  as  a goldsmith  that  he 
owed  his  triumph  in  this  competition  with  the  greatest  sculptors 
of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  execution  of  the  doors  of  the  Baptistery  of  St.  John  occu- 
pied forty  years,  and  during  these  long  labors  Ghiberti  took,  as 
his  assistants,  young  goldsmiths,  who  became,  at  a later  period, 
skilful  masters  of  the  art.  His  brilliant  success  obtained  for  him 
numerous  orders  for  sculpture ; yet  he  never  renounced  his  origi- 
nal profession,  but  continued  during  his  whole  life  to  execute 
works  connected  with  the  goldsmith’s  art.  He  is  justly  con- 
sidered one  of  the  greatest  sculptors  of  modern  times ; he  may 
also  be  classed  among  the  first  of  goldsmiths. 

As  works  of  art,  Ghiberti’s  gates  are  remarkable  in  several 
respects : as  specimens  of  figure  and  ornamental  modelling,  and  of 
metal  casting.  The  relief  is  in  three  degrees,  low,  middle,  and 
high  relief,  but  so  skilfully  managed  as  almost  wholly  to  obviate 
the  difficulty  of  the  shadows  of  the  higher  portions  interfering 
with  lower  and  distant  objects.  In  the  ornamental  architecture 
on  the  jambs  and  traverse,  we  have  some  of  the  earliest  skilful 
natural  treatment  of  the  objects  introduced,  but  the  whole  of 
these  ornaments  are  conventionally  arranged. 

The  works  in  bronze  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  are  also  justly  cele- 
brated, and  he,  too,  was  a goldsmith  of  the  highest  order.  In  the 
present  day,  our  idea  of  the  goldsmith’s  art  is  limited  to  working 
upon  gold  and  silver ; but  during  the  middle  ages,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance,  when  the  precious  metals  were  not  so 
abundant,  the  goldsmiths  worked  equally  on  copper  and  other 
metals. 

Benvenuto  was  born  in  1500.  After  spending  nearly  two 
years  in  the  workshop  of  Michael  Angelo,  to  whom  he  had  been 
apprenticed  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  he  was  placed  under  Antonio 
di  Sandro,  another  Florentine  goldsmith,  and  an  artist  of  great 
talent.  He  subsequently  worked  under  different  goldsmiths  of 
Florence,  Pisa,  Bologna,  and  Sienna,  to  which  latter  place  he  had 
_ been  banished  in  consequence  of  an  affray.  All  the  time  he  could 
Steal  from  the  goldsmith’s  work  he  devoted  to  drawing,  and  the 
study  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters,  particularly  those  of 


90 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Michael  Angelo,  of  whom  he  was  a passionate  admirer.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  he  went  to  Rome.  During  the  two  years  he 
passed  there,  on  this  his  first  visit,  he  devoted  himself  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  study  of  its  antiquities,  which  he  only  relinquished 
to  work  at  the  goldsmith’s  art  when  he  found  himself  in  want  of 
money.  It  may  be  easily  imagined  that  by  following  this  course, 
Cellini,  who  was  endowed  with  great  intelligence  and  a lively 
imagination,  soon  became  a distinguished  artist. 

His  most  celebrated  works  in  bronze  are,  the  statue  of  Perseus, 
and  the  fine  bust  of  Cosmo  I.  The  statue  of  Perseus  was  ordered 
by  Duke  Cosmo,  for  the  grand  square  of  Florence,  where  the 
works  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Donatello  had  already  been  placed. 
This  Benvenuto  esteemed  a high  compliment,  and  he  promised 
that  the  work  should  greatly  excel  the  model  which  had  so  much 
pleased  the  Duke.  But  his  rivals  were  so  incensed  on  learning 
this,  that  they  put  every  obstacle  in  his  way  to  success,  all  of 
which  he  surmounted ; and  to  this  day  his  statue  stands  in  the 
square  at  Florence,  a monument  of  his  genius  and  indomitable 
perseverance. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Florentine  sculptors  made  a 
large  quantity  of  small  bronzes,  statuettes,  or  bas-reliefs,  copied 
mostly  from  the  antique,  or  from  the  masterpieces  of  contempo- 
rary artists.  Some  of  these  were  executed  by  the  great  mas- 
ters of  that  period.  Works  of  rare  beauty,  executed  in  silver 
and  gold,  have  been  copied  with  jgreat  fidelity  in  bronze  by  work- 
ers in  that  metal  of  the  present  day,  and  we  here  present  a vase 
of  French  workmanship,  after  a design  by  Benvenuto  Cellini.  In 
casting  objects  of  this  description  the  French  greatly  excel  all 
other  nations,  and  it  is  estimated  that  no  less  than  six  thousand 
persons  are  employed  in  Paris  constantly  in  making  articles  of 
bronze,  for  home  consumption  and  exportation. 

Germany  possesses  a considerable  number  of  funeral  monu- 
ments in  bronze,  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  Peter 
Vischer,  the  most  famous  of  the  German  sculptors,  who,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  first  introduced  into  his  own 
country  the  Italian  style  of  the  Renaissance,  had  before  executed 


ORNAMENTAL  YASE BRONZE. 


1 


* 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


91 


very  fine  tombs  of  bronze,  stamped  with  the  Germanic  style  of 
the  middle  ages. 

For  thirteen  years,  Peter  Vischer,  with  his  five  sons,  worked 
unceasingly  on  the  bronze  shrine  of  St.  Sebald,  which  is  now  one 
of  the  chief  attractions  of  Nuremberg.  The  oaken  case  in  the 
centre  he  adorned  with  plates  of  silver,  and  surrounded  wTith 
Gothic  architecture  of  the  most  florid  kind.  And  when  complet- 
ed, he  placed  an  inscription  upon  it  to  the  effect  that  the  work 
wras  performed  “ for  the  praise  of  God  Almighty  alone,  and  the 
honor  of  St.  Sebald,  Prince  of  Heaven,  by  the  aid  of  pious  per- 
sons, paid  by  their  voluntary  contributions ; ” but  the  voluntary 
contribution  was  miserably  small,  if  we  may  trust  tradition,  which 
makes  the  entire  sum  but  seven  hundred  and  seventy  florins. 
His  own  statuette  he  carved  and  placed  upon  the  shrine.  He  is 
represented  with  his  leather  apron  on,  and  chisel  in  hand,  in  the 
act  of  carving,  with  head  raised  and  a lofty  mein,  that  must  impress 
most  favorably  all  who  look  upon  this  evidence  of  his  skill  and 
and  ingenuity.  Of  his  worth  a friendly  hand  thus  makes  record. 
“ The  simple  copper-smith  who  could  make  plain  candlesticks  for 
household  use,  as  well  as  raise  a shrine  to  the  honor  of  a heavenly 
prince ; a handicraftsman,  like  many  others,  but  one  so  learned 
and  skilful  that  princes  delighted  to  visit  him,  and  the  after  world 
has  willingly  placed  him  among  great  artists.’’ 

In  the  middle  ages,  there  were  few  artists  capable  of  execut- 
ing the  great  tumulary  slabs  upon  which  were  represented  the 
figures  of  the  deceased;  but  when,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  a 
taste  for  the  arts  had  diffused  itself  over  Germany,  and  the  num- 
ber of  talented  artists  had  greatly  increased,  it  became  the  custom 
among  private  persons  of  wealth  to  place  upon  the  tombs  of  their 
relatives  circular  medallions,  cast  and  chased  in  bronze,  having 
generally  for  subjects  the  escutcheon  of  the  deceased,  supported 
sometimes  by  angels,  children,  or  animals,  these  bas-reliefs  being 
cut  out  and  perforated,  and  laid  upon  the  stone  slab. 

It  was  principally  at  Nuremberg  that  this  kind  of  monument 
was  executed,  from  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  to  beyond 
the  seventeenth,  of  which  the  old  cemetery  of  St.  John,  in  that 
town,  where  Albert  Durer  is  buried,  affords  abundant  testimony. 


92 


AKT-MANUFACTURES. 


It  contains  a large  number  of  tombs,  enriched  with  medallions, 
cut  out  in  such  a manner  as  to  form  a relief  upon  the  stone ; 
several  of  these  are  of  a very  elevated  style  of  composition, 
uniting  great  purity  of  design  with  workmanship  of  exquisite 
delicacy. 

The  tombs  of  Luther  and  Melancthon  are  both  in  the  castle 
church  at  Wittenberg,  and  it  is  known  that  to  those  who  desired 
to  destroy  these  tombs,  after  the  capture  of  the  town,  the  Empe- 
ror Charles  answered,  “ I war  against  the  living,  not  against  the 
dead.”  It  was  to  the  portal  of  this  church  that  Luther  affixed 
the  famous  protest  against  indulgences,  which  occasioned  the  first 
movement  of  the  Reformation.  The  king  has  caused  two  doors 
to  be  cast  in  bronze,  with  the  protest  inscribed  on  them,  so  that 
it  will  now  be  seen  there  in  imperishable  characters. 

Castings  of  natural  objects  are  made  with  a fidelity  that  must 
surprise  all  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  process.  Here  are  two 
specimens  of  this  class,  the  one  a boar’s  head,  and  the  other  a 
Crassula  portulacoides,  executed  in  Florence,  and  were  never 
subjected  to  any  finishing  process. 

Castings  of  this  kind  may  be  obtained  in  the  following  man- 
ner. A bird,  for  instance,  is  taken  and  placed  in  some  natural 
position,  and  suspended,  if  necessary,  by  means  of  fine  threads. 
Once  adjusted,  a composition  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  brick  dust  is 
worked  together  until  it  is  very  fine  and  soft,  and  then  poured 
over  it  till  it  fills  up  the  whole  mould  or  box  in  which  the  object 
is  suspended,  leaving  only  a communication  with  the  bird  by 
means  of  a hole  made  with  a large  iron  wire.  After  the  mould 
has  been  thoroughly  dried,  it  is  fired  and  the  heat  around  it  is 
gradually  increased  until  it  is  red  hot.  This,  it  must  be  seen, 
will  consume  the  object  enclosed,  and  leave  only  a little  ashes  in 
its  place,  which  the  workman  shakes  out  of  the  hole  made  by  th*e 
wire ; and,  for  fear  that  any  of  the  ashes  still  remain,  he  fills  the 
mould  with  quicksilver,  which  forces  every  particle  of  dust  to  rise 
to  the  surface,  and  the  whole  is  then  poured  off  together.  This 
done,  the  bronze,  in  a very  fluid  state,  is  poured  in ; when  the 
mould  is  cold  it  is  broken  up,  and  in  the  heart  of  it  a perfect  re- 
presentation of  the  bird  is  found,  even  to  the  smallest  feather  that 


WB 

boar’s  head,  (bronze.) 


p.  92 


OEASSULA  POETUL  AO  AIDES,  (bEONZE.)  P.  92. 


. 


VASE,  BRONZE  GILT. 


32 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


93 


covered  its  little  body.  And  in  no  other  way  could  the  hairs  on 
the  boar’s  head,  and  the  delicate  leaves  of  the  plant,  in  the  illus- 
trations, be  thus  truthfully  rendered. 

Small  objects  in  bronze,  of  exquisite  finish  and  beauty,  in  the 
manufacture  of  which  the  French  excel,  are  usually  composed  of 
several  parts,  moulded  and  cast  by  different  hands,  but  so  pro- 
portioned and  adjusted  that  they  will  all  combine  and  make  a 
whole.  Thus  in  the  gilt  bronze  vase  here  present  ed ; the  vase 
would  be  moulded  by  itself,  the  body  having  one  mould  and  the 
cover  another ; each  of  the  figures  would  require  a mould,  and  it 
would  be  the  same  with  the  pedestals  and  the  little  feet  that  sup- 
port them.  And  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  work,  a design  is 
made  of  the  proper  size  and  nicely  finished ; each  workman  has 
only  to  see  that  his  work  corresponds  with  the  part  set  before 
him,  and  if  it  be  found  correct,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  when 
the  whole  are  brought  together  and  united  by  means  of  solder 
or  small  rivets  and  screws. 

Within  a few  years  a process  has  been  discovered  for  casting 
ornamental  cylinders,  such  as  the  body  of  this  vase,  without  a 
core.  In  the  ordinary  process  of  ornamental  casting  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  an  outer  and  inner  mould,  as  already  described  for 
moulding  a statue,  so  as  to  leave  an  interstitial  space  into  which 
the  molten  metal  is  poured.  When  the  metal  becomes  cold,  the 
outer  case  is  removed  and  the  inner  one  is  broken  out.  By  the 
new  process  the  outer  mould  is  alone  required ; the  metal  envel- 
opes every  portion  of  it  at  once,  and  a highly-finished  casting  is 
produced  in  a few  minutes.  The  mould  is  of  brass,  and  is  divided 
into  sections,  upon  the  inner  surface  of  which  is  executed  the  or- 
namental design  which  is  to  form  the  exterior  ornamentation  of 
the  cylindrical  vessel,  whatever  it  may  be.  The  sections  of  the 
brass  mould  are  made  hot,  and  fixed  together  by  being  placed  in 
the  centres  of  two  discs  of  metal.  Thus  firmly  secured,  the  re- 
quired quantity  of  metal  is  poured  into  the  mould;  it  is  then 
turned  upon  its  side,  placed  upon  an  inclined  plane  and  allowed  to 
roll  down  it,  and  when  it  arrives  at  the  bottom  it  is  suddenly 
turned  over,  so  that  all  the  metal  which  has  not  cooled  flows  out. 
By  this  motion  the  fluid  metal  has  a tendency,  in  virtue  of  cen- 


94 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


trifugal  force,  to  fly  forcibly  against  tlie  sides  of  the  mould.  It  is 
therefore  urged  into  every  line  of  the  pattern,  and  there  solidifies, 
the  brass  mould,  though  warm,  being  much  colder  than  the  metal. 
The  mould  is  immediately  divided,  and  a very  perfect  urn  or  vase, 
elaborately  ornamented,  is  produced.  By  this  process  as  many 
as  a dozen  can  be  cast  in  an  hour,  whereas  not  one  could  be  com- 
pleted in  the  same  time  by  the  old  method.  It  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  castSpi  of  zinc  and  type  metal,  now  so  much  used  for 
objects  of  ornamental  art,  which,  when  completed,  receive  a coat- 
ing of  copper  applied  to  every  part  by  means  of  the  electrotype 
process,  which  will  be  fully  described  hereafter.  The  statue  of 
the  Amazon  and  Tiger,  page  101,  is  made  of  zinc,  coated  with 
copper,  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  it  may  be  called  a bronze 
statue,  for  it  has  not  only  the  effect,  but  also  the  durability  of  that 
metal ; and  another  advantage  is,  its  cheapness : articles  cast  in 
this  way  costing  only  one-sixth  the  price  of  bronze.  The  coloring 
is  effected  by  apidying  various  chemical  preparations,  usually  con- 
taining a salt  of  copper,  such  as  the  acetate  of  copper  or  verdi- 
gris, and  not  unfrequently  some  ammoniacal  salts. 

Bell  casting  is  an  interesting  operation,  and  should  receive 
our  attention.  The  composition,  known  as  bell-metal,  has  already 
been  described.;  we  shall,  therefore,  pass  on  to  the  founding  of 
the  bell,  the  first  principle  of  which  is,  to  construct  and  shape  it 
so  as  to  insure  that  due  harmony  in  all  its  parts  which  shall  give 
it  its  proper  degree  of  tone  and  vibration. 

The  shape  of  the  bell  is  generally  governed  by  a rule,  which 
requires  that  the  thickness  of  the  sound  bow  or  brim,  where  the 
clapper  strikes,  be  the  standard.  The  diameter  of  the  moutn 
should  be  fifteen  brims,  the  height  of  the  shoulders  twelve  brims, 
and  the  width  of  the  shoulders  seven  and  a half  brims.  Guided 
by  this  rule,  the  workman  prepares  the  mould,  which  is  divided 
into  as  many  parts  as  that  already  described  for  a statue — the 
core,  the  wax,  for  which  tar  and  grease  are  substituted,  and  the 
mould,  which  shuts  down  over,  all  and  gives  the  form  to  the  e^ 
terior  of  the  bell,  called  the  cope. 

The  core  is  first  finished,  and  this  is  made  of  rough  brick-work, 
hollow  in  the  centre,  and  covered  over  with  clay,  which  is  mould- 


he 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


95 


ed  into  form  by  means  of  a piece  of  wood,  called  a crook,  which 
has  a sweep  on  one  edge  exactly  corresponding  with  the  inner 
surface  of  a bell.  The  upper  end  is  attached  to  a stick,  which 
passes  down  through  the  hollow  of  the  core,  and  acts  as  a pivot, 
so  that  all  sides  are  made  exactly  alike  as  the  crook  sweeps  round, 
guided  by  the  workman.  The  core  is  then  baked  enough  to  ren- 
der it  hard,  and  when  it  is  cool  it  receives  a coat  of  tar  and  grease, 
which  is  also  worked  into  form  by  means  of  the  crook,  and  as  the 
wax  represents  the  thickness  of  the  metal  when  the  statue  is  cast, 
so  these  materials  occupy  the  space  that  will  be  filled  by  the  fluid 
metal  when  the  bell  is  cast.  The  crown  or  head,  which  contains 
the  parts  necessary  to  hold  the  clapper,  and  by  which  the  bell  is 
to  be  hung,  must  now  be  fitted. 

The  next  operation  is  to  fit  on  the  cope,  or  outer  mould.  This 
is  formed  over  all,  and  of  course  rests  upon  the  tar  and  grease, 
which  preparation  has  already  received  the  exact  form  of  the  in- 
tended bell.  Then  the  whole  (now  in  the  pit)  is  surrounded  with 
earth  and  pressed  down,  leaving  two  communications  with  the 
head,  the  one  for  the  liquid  metal  to  descend  into  the  mould,  and 
the  other  for  the  air  to  escape.  When  the  liquid  metal  runs  into 
the  space  occupied  by  the  tar  and  grease,  these  combustible  ma- 
terials are  consumed,  and  the  metal,  filling  up  the  whole  space 
they  occupied,  assumes  the  shape  of  a bell.  When  it  has  cooled 
sufliciently  to  allow  the  workmen  to  handle  it,  it  is  removed  to 
the  tuning  room,  where  it  is  finished  off  and  prepared  for  use. 
If  it  is  found  too  sharp  in  tone,  the  thickness  of  the  metal  is  re- 
duced ; and  the  diameter  is  lessened  in  proportion  to  the  sub- 
stance if  it  proves  to  be  too  flat. 

Bells  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  are  used  alike  by  civilized 
and  heathen  nations.  From  the  Egyptians  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans probably  derived  their  knowledge  of  them.  Of  golden  bells 
we  find  mention  made  by  Moses,  and  these  were  attached  to  the 
robes  of  the  High  Priest  of  the  Israelites.  Bells  were  introduced 
in  Campagna,  A.  D.  400,  by  the  Bishop  of  Nola,  and  into  France 
about  550 ; and  when  Clothair  besieged  Sens,  Lupus,  bishop  of 
Orleans,  caused  the  bells  to  be  rung,  which  so  frightened  the 
army  without  the  walls  that  it  left  in  dismay.  Pope  Sebastian, 


96 


ART-MANUFACTURES . 


who  died  in  605,  first  ordered  that  the  hours  of  the  day  should 
he  announced  by  striking  the  bell,  that  the  good  people  might 
better  attend  to  the  hours  for  singing  and  praying.  Bells  were 
formerly  objects  of  superstition.  Each  one  was  represented  to 
have  its  peculiar  name  and  virtues,  and  many  are  said  to  have 
retained  great  affection  for  the  churches  to  which  they  belonged 
and  where  they  were  consecrated.  When  a bell  wTas  removed 
from  its  original  and  favorite  situation,  it  was  sometimes  supposed 
to  take  a nightly  trip  to  its  old  place  of  residence,  unless  exorcised 
hi  the  evening  and  secured  with  a cham  and  rope. 

The  custom  of  baptizing  and  naming  bells  began  in  the  eighth 
century,  and  about  the  year  900  bells  were  used  in  churches  by 
order  of  Pope  John  IX.  as  a defence,  by  ringing  them,  against 
thunder  and  lightning.  The  first  peal  of  bells  was  probably  that 
of  King’s  College,  Cambridge,  presented  by  Pope  Calixtus  III., 
1456,  and  consisted  of  five  bells;  subsequently  the  art  of  produc- 
ing a succession  of  musical  notes  was  brought  to  great  perfection. 
Peals  of  ten  and  twelve  bells  are  often  hung,  but  those  of  five  and 
eight  are  more  common. 

The  nearer  bells  are  hung  to  the  earth’s  surface,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  further  they  can  be  heard.  Franklin  has  re- 
marked that  many  years  ago  the  inhabitants  of  Philadelphia  had 
a bell  imported  from  England.  In  order  to  judge  of  the  sound, 
it  was  elevated  on  a triangle  in  the  great  street  of  the  city, 
and  struck ; and,  as  it  happened,  on  a market  day,  the  people, 
coming  to  market,  were  surprised  on  hearing  the  sound  of  a bell 
at  a greater  distance  from  the  city  than  they  had  ever  heard  a 
bell  before.  This  circumstance  excited  the  attention  of  the  curi- 
ous, and  it  was  discovered  that  the  sound  of  the  bell,  when  struck 
in  the  street,  reached  nearly  double  the  distance  it  could  be  heard 
when  raised  in  the  air. 

In  Pekin  there  are  seven  bells  that  weigh  each  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  pounds ; but  the  great  bell  of  St.  Ivans,  Mos- 
cow, weighs  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  pounds,  while  that  of  the  Kremlin  weighs  four 
hundred  and  forty-three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty-two. 
This  last  was  never  hung.  Its  height  is  twenty-one  feet  four  and 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


97 


a half  inches ; its  circumference,  ten  feet  above  the  extremity  of 
the  lip,  sixty-seven  feet  four  inches ; its  diameter  is  over  twenty- 
two  feet,  and  its  greatest  thickness  is  twenty-two  inches.  The 
metal  in  it  alone  is  valued  at  £66,565.  It  was  never  removed 
from  the  pit  where  it  was  cast. 

In  casting  bells  Burmah  transcends  all  the  rest  of  India. 
They  are  disproportionately  thick,  but  of  delightful  tone.  The 
raised  inscription  and  figures  are  described  as  very  beautiful. 
These  bells  do  not  flare  open  at  the  mouth,  like  a trumpet,  but 
are  precisely  the  shape  of  old-fashioned  wine  glasses.  Several  in 
the  empire  are  of  enormous  size.  At  Mengoon,  near  Ava,  there 
is  one  that  weighs  more  than  three  hundred  and  thirty  thousand 
pounds.  By  actual  measurement  it  is  twenty  inches  thick,  twenty 
feet  high,  including  the  ear,  by  which  it  is  hung,  and  thirteen 
and  a half  feet  in  diameter.  The  weight  was  ascertained  by  the 
Burmans  before  casting,  and  its  bulk  in  cubic  inches  proves  them 
to  be  correct.  It  is  suspended  a few  inches  above  the  ground, 
and,  like  all  other  great  bells,  is  without  a tongue. 

The  gongs  of  the  Chinese,  from  the  word  “ tshoung,”  which 
signifies  “ a bell,”  are  forged  of  bronze  with  a hammer.  They 
are  very  thin,  and  are  raised  up  in  the  middle.  The  alloy  of 
which  they  are  composed  is  as  brittle  as  glass  when  cast ; but  by 
placing  it  between  two  discs  of  iron,  to  keep  its  shape,  and 
plunging  it  at  a cherry  red  into  cold  water,  it  becomes  tough 
and  malleable. 

Bells  of  cast  iron,  and  steel  bells,  have  been  frequently  made  of 
a large  size.  They  can  be  produced  in  these  metals  at  a lower 
rate  than  in  bell-metal,  but  they  are  very  liable  to  crack.  When 
cast  iron  is  used,  a small  proportion  of  tin  is  added,  and  the  result 
is  a very  sonorous  metal. 

From  a description  of  the  process  necessary  to  produce  one 
of  the  largest  objects  made  from  the  several  alloys  referred  to, 
let  us  now  turn  to  the  mode  of  making  a pin,  which  is  also  com 
posed  of  nearly  the  same  materials.  The  wire,  which  is  made  of 
yellow  brass,  with  the  addition  of  a small  quantity  of  zinc  and 
lead,  is  subjected  to  fourteen  different  operations  when  worked 
by  hand.  And  first  the  workman  straightens  it  and  cuts  it  into 
5 


98 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


lengths  of  three  or  four  pins,  producing  eighteen  or  twenty  thou- 
sand pin  lengths  in  a day.  Then  the  pointing  is  executed  on  a 
grindstone  by  two  men ; the  one  giving  the  rough  point  and  the 
other  finishing  it,  when  the  wires  are  cut  into  the  proper  lengths 
by  an  adjusted  chisel.  Then  the  heads  are  twisted  out  of  a finer 
wire,  coiled  into  a compact  spiral  (round  a wire  of  the  size  of  the 
pin,  by  means  of  a small  lathe  constructed  for  the  purpose),  and 
two  turns  are  dexterously  cut  off  for  each  head  by  a skilful 
workman,  who  may  turn  off  twelve  thousand  in  the  hour.  To 
anneal  the  heads,  they  are  put  into  an  iron  ladle,  made  red  hot 
over  an  open  fire,  and  then  thrown  into  cold  water ; after  this 
they  are  stamped  by  the  blow  of  a small  ram,  and  then  they  are 
fixed  on  to  the  shanks  by  men  who  make  from  twelve  thousand 
to  fifteen  thousand  per  diem,  exclusive  of  one-thirteenth  always 
deducted  for  waste. 

To  clean  or  yellow  the  pins,  they  are  boiled  for  half  an  hour 
in  sour  beer,  wine  lees,  or  a solution  of  tartar,  after  which  they 
are  washed.  And  to  whiten  them  a stratum  of  about  six  pounds 
of  pins  is  laid  in  a copper  pan,  then  a stratum  of  seven  or  eight 
pounds  of  grain  tin,  and  so  on  alternately  till  the  vessel  is  filled, 
a pipe  being  left  inserted  in  the  side,  to  admit  of  the  introduction 
of  water  at  the  bottom  without  deranging  the  contents.  The 
vessel  is  then  placed  over  the  fire,  and  when  the  water  becomes 
hot  the  surface  is  sprinkled  with  four  ounces  of  cream  of  tartar, 
and  after  the  expiration  of  an  hour  the  pins  and  grains  are  sepa- 
rated by  means  of  a kind  of  cullender.  Then  the  pins  are 
washed,  after  which  they  are  dried  and  polished  in  a leather  sack, 
filled  with  coarse  bran,  winnowed  by  fanners,  and  fixed  in  papers 
previously  pricked  for  receiving  them,  which  last  operation  is 
performed  by  children,  who  acquire  the  habit  of  putting  up 
thirty-six  thousand  per  day. 

This  is  the  process  usually  employed  in  making  pins  by  hand ; 
but  beautiful  inventions  have  been  introduced  that  greatly  facili- 
tate the  operation.  During  the  war  of  1812  an  attempt  was  made 
to  introduce  the  manufacture  of  pins  into  New  York;  but  the 
low  prices  that  followed  the  declaration  of  peace,  were  destruc- 
tive to  the  enterprise.  Several  subsequent  attempts  to  carry  on 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


90 


the  business  in  this  country  were  made,  but  with  little  success 
till  the  Howe  Manufacturing  Company  set  up  an  invention  in 
1835,  patented  by  the  head  of  the  house,  and  the  same  inventor 
patented  another  invention,  now  in  use,  in  1846,  for  making  solid 
headed  pins.  A patent  was  also  obtained  in  England,  in  1835, 
by  Samuel  Slocum,  of  Rhode  Island,  but  in  this  country  he  ob- 
tained no  patent  for  a machine  invented  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  which  has  been  successfully  run  in  secret.  This  last  inven- 
tion has  changed  hands,  and  is  owned  by  the  American  Pin  Com- 
pany, and  this  firm  and  the  Howe  Manufacturing  Company,  with 
one  or  two  other  establishments,  now  manufacture  nearly  all  the 
pins  consumed  in  the  United  States.  One  of  these  machines 
turns  out  two  barrels  of  pins  per  day,  each  barrel  containing  two 
million  pins.  It  takes  the  wire  from  a reel,  cuts  it  into  the  re- 
quired lengths,  points,  heads,  and  makes  a perfect  pin  by  a single 
operation.  From  this  machine  the  pins  fall  into  the  hopper  of 
the  sticking  machine,  in  which  they  are  arranged,  stuck  into  the 
paper  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  a minute,  and  come  out  all 
perfect,  only  requiring  to  be  packed,  to  be  ready  for  market. 

It  is  well  known  that  pins  of  brass  wire  are  deficient  of  strength 
and  elasticity,  and  pins  of  steel  and  iron  have  been  introduced  as 
a substitute,  but  they  must  be  coated  with  tin.  This  operation, 
however,  cannot  be  performed  equally  well  with  iron  as  with 
brass,  and  without  it  the  pins  have  an  uneven  surface,  which  ren- 
ders them  inconvenient  for  use,  as  they  are  liable  to  tear  the 
cloth.  To  avoid  this  defect  the  iron  is  first  covered  with  a thin 
coating  of  copper,  or  other  metal  having  a greater  affinity  for  tin 
than  iron  has ; but  in  order  that  the  result  should  be  satisfactorily 
attained,  it  is  necessary  to  polish  and  pickle  the  pins  before  cop- 
pering them.  This  is  done  in  a bath  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
and  when  it  is  accomplished  sulphate  of  copper,  in  crystals,  is 
added,  and  the  whole  agitated  for  ten  minutes,  when  a solid  cop- 
pering will  be  effected,  with  a finely  polished  surface.  The  pins 
are  then  washed  in  cold  water,  put  into  a tray  with  a hot  solution 
of  soap,  and  agitated  for  a couple  of  minutes,  when  they  may  be 
dried  and  trimmed  in  the  usual  way. 

Pins  were  not  known  in  England  till  the  latter  part  of  the 


100 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1543.)  The  ladies  used  ribbons,  loops,  and 
skewers  made  of  wood,  of  brass,  silver,  or  gold.  The  pin  was  at 
first  so  ill  made  that  Parliament  enacted  none  should  be  made 
unless  they  had  double  heads,  “ and  have  the  heads  soldered  fast 
to  the  shanks  of  the  pynne.”  After  this  act  few  were  made.  The 
“ pynners  ” declared  “ that  sens  the  making  of  the  saide  act  there 
hath  been  scarcitee  of  pynnes  within  this  realme,  that  the  kynge’s 
liege  people  have  not  bean  wel  nor  completely  served  of  pynnes ; ” 
and  they  pray  that,  “ in  consideration  thereof,  it  maie  please  the 
king  that  the  act  may  be  adjudged  and  decreed  from  henceforth 
frustrate  and  nihilated  forever.” 

A very  simple  mode  of  bronzing  a medal  is,  to  wash  it  well 
with  spirits  of  turpentine,  after  it  has  been  exposed  to  a strong 
heat,  by  which  the  turpentine  is  decomposed  and  a fine  coating 
of  reddish  resin  deposited  upon  the  surface.  Another  common 
mode  of  bronzing  coins  and  medals  is,  to  apply  a solution  of  sub- 
acetate of  copper  and  one  part  of  the  muriate  of  ammonia  dis- 
solved in  vinegar  and  boiled  frequently.  In  this  the  metal  is 
placed,  and  it  is  necessary  to  watch  it,  lest  the  oxidation  of  the 
surface  should  extend  too  far,  and  thus  produce  a dull  granulated 
face.  It  is  then  washed,  to  remove  all  the  acid,  and  the  process 
is  complete.  To  produce  the  patina  antique , or  the  fine  green 
crust  which  is  so  much  admired  in  antique  statues : a composition 
of  one  part  of  sal-ammonia,  three  parts  of  cream  of  tartar,  six  of 
common  salt,  in  twelve  parts  of  hot  water,  and  mix  with  the  so- 
lution eight  parts  of  a solution  of  nitrate  of  copper.  More  salt 
gives  a yellow  tinge,  less  salt  a bluish  cast,  and  an  addition  of  sal- 
ammonia  accelerates  the  operation.  This  must  be  applied  in  the 
form  of  a wash  to  the  surface,  and  the  article  must  be  put  in  a 
damp  place,  to  prevent  its  drying  too  rapidly.  When  dry,  other 
washings  must  be  applied,  until  a fine  hard  crust  of  patina , sus- 
ceptible of  taking  a fine  polish,  is  obtained. 

Bronze  powders  are  made  by  taking  slips  of  copper  and  dis- 
solving them  in  aqua  fortis.  When  the  acid  is  saturated  the  so- 
lution is  warmed,  and  slips  of  iron  are  immersed  in  it,  by  which 
metallic  copper  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a fine  powder. 

The  Chinese  are  said  to  bronze  their  vessels  by  taking  two 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


101 


ounces  of  verdigris,  two  of  cinnabar,  five  of  sal  ammonia,  and  five 
of  alum,  all  in  powder,  and  when  made  into  a paste  with  vinegar, 
spread,  in  the  form  of  a thick  coat,  over  a surface  previously 
brightened.  It  is  then  cooled,  washed  and  dried,  and  subjected 
to  the  same  process  again  till  the  desired  color  is  obtained.  An 
addition  of  sulphate  of  copper  makes  the  color  incline  more  to 
chestnut  brown,  and  of  borax  more  to  yellow. 

Objects  made  of  gypsum  may  be  durably  bronzed,  and  bear 
exposure  to  the  weather  better  than  after  the  ordinary  oil  var- 
nish, by  the  following  process : Prepare  a soap  from  linseed  oil, 

boiled  with  caustic  soda  lye,  to  which  add  a solution  of  common 
salt,  and  concentrate  it  by  boiling,  till  it  becomes  somewhat 
granulated  upon  the  surface.  Strain  through  a linen  cloth,  with 
moderate  pressure,  and  what  is  passed  through  dilute  with  boiling 
water,  and  again  filter.  On  the  other  hand,  four  parts  of  blue 
vitriol  and  one  of  copperas  are  to  be  dissolved  separately  in  hot 
water.  This  solution  is  to  be  poured  slowly  into  the  solution  of 
soap,  as  long  as  it  contains  any  precipitate.  This  flocculent  mat- 
ter is  a mixture  of  cupreous  soap  and  ferruginous  soap,  that  is,  a 
combination  of  the  oxides  of  copper  and  iron  with  the  margaric 
acid  of  the  soda  soap.  The  copper  soap  is  green,  the  iron  soap 
is  reddish  brown,  and  both  together  resemble  the  green  rust 
which  is  the  characteristic  of  the  antique  bronze.  When  the  pre- 
cipitate is  completely  separated,  a fresh  portion  of  the  vitriol  so- 
lution is  to  be  poured  upon  it  in  a copper  pan,  and  is  made  to 
boil,  in  order  to  wash  it.  After  some  time  the  liquid  must  be 
decanted  and  replaced  by  warm  water,  for  the  purpose  of  washing 
the  metallic  soaps.  They  are  finally  treated  with  cold  water, 
pressed  in  a linen  bag,  drained  and  dried.  In  this  state  the  com- 
pound is  ready  for  use  in  the  following  way : 

Three  pounds  of  pure  linseed  oil  are  to  be  boiled  with  twelve 
ounces  of  finely  powdered  litharge,  then  strained  through  a coarse 
canvas  cloth,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  a warm  place  till  the  soap 
turns  clear.  Fifteen  ounces  of  this  soap  varnish,  mixed  with 
twelve  ounces  of  the  above  metallic  soaps  and  five  ounces  of  fine 
white  wax,  are  to  be  melted  together  at  a gentle  heat  in  a porce- 
lain basin,  by  means  of  a water  bath.  The  mixture  must  be  kept 


102 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


for  some  time  in  a melted  state,  to  expel  any  moisture  it  may 
contain.  It  must  then  be  applied,  by  means  of  a painter’s  brush, 
to  the  surface  of  the  gypsum  previously  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  about  200°  Fahr.  By  skilful  management  of  the  heat, 
the  color  may  be  evenly  and  smoothly  laid  on  without  filling  up 
the  minute  lineaments  of  the  bust.  When,  after  remaining  in  the 
cool  air  for  a few  days,  and  the  smell  of  the  pigment  has  gone 
off,  the  surface  is  to  be  rubbed  with  cotton  wool,  or  a fine  linen 
rag,  and  variegated  with  a few  streaks  of  metallic  powder  or  shell 
gold.  Small  objects  may  be  dipped  in  the  metallic  mixture  and 
then  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a fire,  till  they  are  thoroughly  pene- 
trated and  evenly  coated  with  it. 

Ornamental  articles  cast  in  an  inferior  metal,  may  be  made  to 
assume  the  appearance,  and,  so  far  as  decay  is  considered,  the 
qualities  of  bronze,  by  the  new  process  of  electro-brassing,  by 
means  of  which  the  surface  of  cast  iron  or  zinc  receives  a deposit 
of  the  alloy,  which  may  subsequently  be  treated  exactly  like 
bronze.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  a voltaic  battery,  the  opera- 
tion of  which  will  be  described  in  another  chapter.  This  mode  is 
now  employed  on  a most  extensive  scale,  not  only  for  large  ob- 
jects, like  the  statue  of  the  Amazon,  at  page  94,  but  also  to  the 
most  ordinary  objects,  even  to  the  facing  of  printing  types  with 
copper,  which  renders  them  more  durable,  and  they  give  a clear- 
er and  sharper  impression  than  can  be  obtained  from  the  ordinary 
type  metal.  Many  articles  now  offered  for  sale,  and  which  have 
the  appearance  of  being  made  of  bronze,  are  in  reality  composed 
of  cast  iron,  with  a bronze  surface.  An  illustration  is  given  in 
the  Baptismal  Font,  page  46. 

Articles  of  bronze,  of  the  most  graceful  forms,  are  now  placed 
within  the  reach  of  the  many,  and  the  French  manufacturers  have 
excelled  all  others  in  the  variety  and  finish  of  works  of  this  de- 
scription. In  the  production  of  mantle  ornaments  they  seem  to 
delight,  and  these  are  often  marked  for  the  grace  and  beauty  of 
the  design.  We  here  introduce  a set,  composed  of  a clock  and  a 
candelabrum  on  each  side.  The  elaborate  clock  is  surmounted 
by  two  figures  representing  the  conversion  of  a Saracen.  The 
whole  stands  on  a perforated  and  appropriate  pedestal.  The 


clock  (bronze,  gilt.)  p.  102. 


f 


OA.SDBI,  UittOWT,  (BIO.^ZE  GILT). 


p.  loa, 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


103 


design  of  the  candelabrum  on  each  side  is  composed  in  part  of 
the  same  ornaments,  and  the  connection  is  kept  up  by  the  figures, 
the  one  a Moor  and  the  other  a Crusader,  with  just  sufficient  play 
of  the  imagination  to  prevent  a stiff  and  formal  repetition  of  any 
one  part  of  the  design.  The  prominent  parts  are  finished  with 
gilt,  or  are  silvered,  which  adds  materially  to  the  richness  and 
effect  of  the  whole. 

Works  of  this  description  are  now  produced  at  prices  wdiich 
are  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  expense  attending  like 
productions  of  an  earlier  period,  and  there  is  no  surer  way  of  in- 
creasing a love  for  the  beautiful  than  by  placing  articles  possess- 
ing this  quality  in  the  highest  degree,  within  the  reach  of  all. 
The  mind  of  the  uncultivated  may  not  always  discern  the  differ- 
ence between  the  good  and  the  bad,  but  long  familiarity  with  the 
former  wTill  in  time  lead  the  least  discerning  to  see  that  the  repose 
and  appropriateness  of  one  design,  not  only  gives  satisfaction,  but 
also  increases  the  pleasure  derived  from  a study  of  it ; while  that 
of  another,  marked  by  excess  and  incongruity  (it  matters  not  how 
florid  or  showy  it  may  be)  in  the  same  ratio  fails  to  command  at- 
tention, and  finally  it  will  be  set  aside  as  unworthy  of  respect. 

We  cannot  illustrate  this  better  than  by  giving  a cut  of  an- 
other bronze  and  gilt  candelabrum,  also  of  French  workmanship. 
It  will  be  at  once  seen  that  while  it  lacks  repose,  there  is  nothing 
definite  about  the  design,  or  any  thing  to  arrest  and  hold  the  at- 
tention. A closer  examination  will  show  marked  defects.  The 
pedestal  is  surmounted  by  cupids  and  a wreath  of  flowers.  Above 
these  rises  a palm  tree,  probably ; at  any  rate,  a tree  of  some  kind, 
with  a straight  shaft  and  a spreading  top.  Around  the  trunk  of 
the  tree,  and  extending  nearly  to  the  branches,  trophies  of  arms, 
shields,  spears,  battle-axes,  <fcc.,  are  gathered,  and  so  arranged  as 
to  make  a gradually  diminishing  line  from  the  base  to  the  top. 
From  the  leaves  dolphins  start  out,  their  tails  buried  amid  the 
foliage,  and  their  bodies  so  twisted  that  their  backs  are  turned 
down,  and  their  open  mouths  turned  up  to  receive  the  candles 
they  are  placed  there  to  hold.  In  the  centre  of  all  these  the  top 
of  the  tree  expands  into  the  form  of  a globe,  on  which  the  cock 
of  France,  with  extended  wings,  and  crowing  lustily,  is  perched — 


104 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  whole  being  an  absurd  collection  of  parts  that  have  not,  nor 
can  have  by  any  possibility,  the  least  connection.  Trees  do  not 
usually  expand  into  the  form  of  a globe,  nor  are  they  frequently 
resorted  to  by  dolphins,  and  even  if  this  accorded  with  the  tastes 
of  the  latter,  it  is  hardly  possible  that  they  would  assume  so  un- 
natural a position.  It  is  a question  how  far  natural  forms  may  be 
used  for  ornament,  but  even  when  treated  conventionally,  there  is 
no  rule  that  will  sanction  the  placing  of  them  in  a position  that 
directly  violates  the  laws  of  nature. 

And  while  we  are  on  this  subject  we  may  here  present  one 
more  candelabrum  (one  of  American  workmanship),  which  is  also 
of  bronze  gilt.  "VV e believe  that  we  have  already  mentioned  that 
twenty  years  ago  every  article  of  this  description  used  in  the 
United  States  was  imported,  but  now  we  are  able  to  produce 
elaborate  designs,  many  of  which  show  a marked  improvement, 
and  are  greatly  superior  to  patterns  that  were  once  deemed  wor- 
thy of  attention.  But  the  design  before  us  (and  we  give  it  mere- 
ly as  an  illustration  of  our  subject)  is  loaded  down  with  an  excess 
of  ornament,  the  designer  having  left  no  spot  on  which  the  eye 
can  rest,  or  where  it  can  seek  for  a moment’s  repose,  before  it  is 
forced  to  trace  out  the  remainder  of  the  elaborate  pattern.  From 
top  to  bottom  there  is  the  same  excess,  and  this  too  often  marks 
the  best  ornamental  works  produced  in  this  country.  Such  was 
particularly  the  case  with  many  articles  displayed  at  the  exposi- 
tion of  the  Crystal  Palace  in  New  York,  and  some  of  the  defects 
in  this  way,  of  articles  there  exhibited,  may  yet  receive  our 
attention. 

As  high  a value  should  be  set  on  the  unadorned  parts  of  the 
surface  as  on  those  enriched  with  ornament,  for  the  value  of  the 
latter  is  increased  by  its  contrast  with  the  former.  A well  re- 
ceived rule  requires  that  there  should  be  as  much  of  the  one  as 
of  the  other,  and  all  excess  marks  a want  of  taste.  If  this  be  cor- 
rect, then  the  candelabrum  should  be  condemned,  for  the  impres- 
sion it  conveys  is  not  only  confusing,  but  we  also  feel  that  the 
design  was  intended  to  show  olf  the  ornaments,  and  not  the  orna- 
ments to  enhance  the  value  or  improve  the  outline  of  the  design, 
to  which  they  should  be  subordinate. 


CANDELABRUM,  (BRONZE  GILT).  ]>.  104. 


' 

* 


- 

BRONZE  STATUES. 


105 


An  article  may  be  elaborately  ornamented  and  not  infringe 
any  rule  here  given.  As  an  illustration  of  this  we  give  a French 
vase  of  exquisite  workmanship.  At  a glance  we  take  in  the 
whole  design,  and  without  having  to  pause  for  a moment  to  de- 
cipher any  portion  of  it.  The  outline  is  clearly  defined,  and  it 
embraces  a due  proportion  of  straight,  angular,  and  curved  lines. 
The  ornaments  are  rendered  subordinate  to  the  whole,  and  each 
and  every  part  can  be  examined  in  detail,  while  the  whole  com- 
bines to  produce  a general  effect.  Ornaments,  to  be  beautiful, 
must  be  appropriate.  It  is  in  vain  that  the  workman  elaborates 
his  design,  if  it  be  not  based  on  right  principles.  Two  wrongs  do 
not  make  one  right,  and  as  a display  of  jewels,  intended  to 
heighten  the  attractions  of  one  in  years,  but  serves  to  show  the 
marks  of  time  on  the  brow  that  once  needed  no  aids  to  command 
attention,  so  the  rococo  adornments,  which  are  but  too  prevalent 
in  our  ornamental  art,  only  render  more  conspicuous  the  defects 
they  are  intended  to  screen. 

We  naturally  crave  that  on  which  time  and  labor  have  been 
expended,  to  render  it  more  beautiful  and  increase  its  attractions. 
This  is  inherent  in  the  human  race.  Venice  derived  untold 
wealth  from  her  trade  in  glass  jewelry  with  the  savage  hordes  of 
Africa  and  Asia.  The  Peruvians  freely  gave  their  treasures  of 
gold  for  gew-gaws  wherewith  to  deck  their  swarthy  forms.  It  is 
this  same  feeling — more  refined  and  elevated,  but  no  less  the 
same — which  governs  the  selections  of  civilized  nations.  The 
highly  cultivated  Greeks  were  satisfied  only  with  the  most  exqui- 
site forms  in  their  ornamental  art.  The  Romans  were  less  refined 
and  less  fastidious,  and  finally  the  higher  standard  was  lost  until 
the  revival  known  as  the  Renaissance,  when  a pure  taste  was 
once  more  inculcated.  Then  domestic  articles  of  every  descrip- 
tion were  conceived  in  such  fine  forms,  and  were  enriched  with 
such  exquisite  ornaments  and  graceful  little  figures,  as  to  render 
them  eagerly  sought  after  as  true  specimens  of  art.  Many  of 
these  designs  are  now  reproduced  with  fidelity,  and  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  received  is  an  evidence  of  the  high  appreciation 
of  their  beauty.  We  here  introduce  two  specimens  that  are  dis- 
tinguished for  beauty  of  outline  and  elaborate  finish.  They  are 
5* 


106 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


in  bronze,  of  French  workmanship,  and  are  copied  from  the  works 
of  Benvenuto  Cellini.  They  are  rich  without  excess,  and  while 
they  display  an  exuberance  of  fancy,  it  is  governed  by  principles 
that  allow  not  the  ornaments  employed  to  interfere  with  the 
general  plan ; rather  are  they  introduced  as  a part  of  the  whole, 
and  not  one  of  them  could  be  spared  without  injury  to  the  gene- 
ral effect. 

Although  attention  has  of  late  years  been  called  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  employment  of  bronze  for  ornamental  and  useful 
purposes,  it  has  by  no  means  reached  the  point  at  which  all  its 
line  qualities  are  discerned,  and  it  is  only  when  we  meet  with 
works  like  the  above,  from  the  antique,  or  such  castings  as  the 
wounded  heron,  and  the  boar’s  head,  already  referred  to,  that  we 
see  how  readily  it  may  be  adapted  to  works  of  the  most  elaborate 
and  difficult  character.  And  for  articles  of  daily,  use  there  is 
nothing  within  our  reach  that  offers  so  many  advantages.  It  can 
be  worked  at  a moderate  expense,  any  little  ornaments  introduced 
are  brought  out  clear  and  sharp,  and  a variety  of  different  shades 
may  readily  be  given  to  the  several  parts. 

As  an  example  of  its  adaptation  to  simple  articles  of  domestic 
use,  we  here  introduce  an  inkstand.  The  group  which  adorns 
the  top  represents  the  triumph  of  Amphitrite,  and  the  whole  is 
beautiful  and  attractive.  Paper  weights,  lamp  stands,  candle- 
sticks, brackets,  and  a thousand  and  one  articles  of  daily  use  may 
be  made  of  it.  And  if  real  taste  be  displayed  in  the  design,  the 
interest  in  the  article  will  be  lasting,  and  no  change  of  fashion 
can  affect  its  value.  The  spirit  of  the  workman  must  pervade  the 
work,  which,  to  be  successful,  must  address  itself  to  the  mind  as 
well  as  to  the  eye.  The  hand  that  formed  it  may  have  been  un- 
steady, and  the  exquisite  finish,  that  by  many  is  deemed  essential, 
may  be  lacking ; but  if  it  be  wrought  with  a true  and  abiding  love, 
it  will  have  a charm  that  the  most  careful  manipulation  alone 
could  never  impart  to  it. 

The  French  have  ever  deemed  this  culture  essential,  and  one, 
familiar  with  their  tastes  and  pursuits,  says  that  when  they  enter 
a restaurant  to  dine  they  Avant  a feast  spread  for  their  eyes,  for 
their  sense  of  beauty,  as  well  as  for  their  palate;  and  this  love  of 


CELLINI  VASES,  BRONZE.  p.  10G. 


, — — — 


BRONZE  STATUES. 


107 


tlie  refined  and  beautiful  in  all  such  places  of  public  resort  has  led 
another  to  say,  “ If  one  could  feed  with  one’s  eyes,  the  meal  would 
be  a banquet,”  and  here  we  have  the  effect  and  the  result  of  their 
lavish  decoration  embraced  in  a few  words.  “Mark  how  much 
is  done  in  this  cheap  cafe  for  the  eye,  and  how  well  it  is  done. 
The  architect  has  accommodated  his  plans  to  the  awkward  shape 
of  the  ground  so  ingeniously,  and  gilders,  and  carvers,  and  paint- 
ers, have  so  come  to  his  aid,  that  I am  not  sure  but  the  general 
aspect  of  the  room  is  finer  than  that  of  Taylor’s  splendid  rectan- 
gular saloon  on  Broadway.  The  very  monographic  commercial 
advertisements,  that  decorate  rather  than  disfigure  the  lower  part 
of  the  side  walls,  have  some  touch  of  art  in  them.  And  so,  while 
these  Parisians,  artists,  or  artisans,  are  sipping  their  coffee,  they 
are  receiving  constantly  through  their  eyes,  an  unconscious  cul- 
ture of  their  taste,  for  which  they  are  distinguished  throughout 
the  world.” 

But  this  was  not  always  so,  and  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIY. 
neither  music  nor  painting  seemed  to  form  a part  of  the  education 
of  even  those  who  had  the  leisure  to  devote  to  these  elevating 
studies.  Then  the  cinque  cento,  which  is  the  purest  form  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  which  had  pervaded  all  manufactures  of  the 
time,  was  found  too  exacting  in  its  rules,  and  a new  style,  the 
Louis  Quatorze,  commenced  to  develope  itself.  This  found  ex- 
pression wholly  in  gilt  stucco  work,  to  the  almost  exclusion  of 
other  styles  of  decoration,  and,  finally,  after  becoming  fully  elabo- 
rated in  the  Louis  Quinze  style,  ultimately  was  debased  in  the 
Rococo,  in  which  all  symmetry  was  avoided,  and  the  designers 
aimed  only  at  extravagant  effects. 


CHAPTER  YII. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER. 

THE  first  notice  that  we  have  of  the  precious  metals  is  in  the 
form  of  money,  passed  by  weight,  and  then  for  the  purposes 
of  personal  adornment.  At  a later  period,  gold  also  entered 
largely  into  the  fabrication  of  articles  to  which  steel  alone  is  now 
applied,  and  during  the  middle  ages  the  munificence  of  the  church 
stimulated  the  goldsmiths  to  undertake  the  most  exquisite  works 
in  the  precious  metals.  At  that  period  gold  and  silver  were  not 
so  abundant,  and  the  goldsmiths  worked  equally  on  copper  and 
other  metals. 

When  Charlemagne  wished  to  restore  the  cultivation  of  the 
arts  in  the  vast  empire  he  had  subjected  to  his  sway,  he  found,  in 
the  goldsmith’s  department,  artists  ready  to  carry  out  his  views. 
The  churches  were  abundantly  provided  with  vessels  of  gold  and 
silver  ; while  princes  and  bishops  rivalled  each  other  in  the  mag- 
nificence of  their  gifts  to  the  basilicas,  restored  and  embellished 
by  the  orders  of  the  powerful  emperor.  Charlemagne’s  will  is  a 
curious  evidence  of  the  immense  riches  possessed  by  this  prince 
in  works  of  the  goldsmith’s  art.  Among  other  objects,  he  had 
three  tables  of  silver  and  one  of  gold,  of  considerable  size  and 
weight.  On  the  first  was  traced  the  plan  of  the  city  of  Constan- 
tinople, upon  the  second  a view  of  Rome ; the  third,  very  supe- 
rior to  the  others  in  the  beauty  of  its  workmanship,  was  convex, 
and  composed  of  three  zones  containing  a description  of  the 


• ••  - . « - - 


■ 


■ -;v.  ^ 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


109 


whole  universe,  figured  with  skill  and  delicacy.  Thus  science 
and  art  had  united  their  efforts  in  the  execution  of  these  monu- 
ments. 

A considerable  number  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  gold- 
smith’s art  possessed  by  Charlemagne  followed  him  to  the  tomb. 
It  it  said  that  his  body  was  embalmed  and  enclosed  in  a sepulchral 
chamber,  under  the  dome  of  the  church  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He 
was  seated  upon  a throne  of  gold,  and  clothed  in  his  imperial 
robes ; at  his  side  was  a sword  of  which  the  pommel,  as  well  as 
the  decorations  of  the  scabbard,  were  of  gold;  his  head  was  orna- 
mented with  a chain  of  gold,  in  which  was  enshrined  a piece  of 
the  true  cross.  Before  him  were  suspended  his  sceptre  and  his 
buckler,  both  also  of  gold. 

These  riches  attracted  the  cupidity  of  the  succeeding  Empe- 
rors of  Germany,  who  took  possession  of  them ; probably  the 
spoliation  occurred  when,  in  1166,  Frederick  Barbarossa  distribu- 
ted his  bones  to  be  enclosed  in  shrines  and  reliquaries  as  those  of 
saints.  The  only  specimens  of  goldsmith’s  work  belonging  to  that 
great  man,  are  his  crown  and  sword. 

In  Italy  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  church  followed  the  ex- 
amples set  them  by  the  popes,  and  the  magnificent  altar  of  gold 
of  the  church  of  St.  Ambrose  at  Milan,  which  has  passed  uninjured 
through  ten  centuries,  notwithstanding  its  immense  value,  gives 
a high  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  goldsmith’s  art  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century. 

But  it  was  not  Italy  alone  that  distinguished  herself  in  the 
ninth  century  by  the  magnificent  productions  of  her  workers  in 
gold.  France  had  preserved  the  artistic  processes  transmitted  to 
her  by  St.  Eloy,  who  rose  from  a simple  artisan  to  be  the  most 
remarkable  man  of  his  century,  and  whose  virtues  were  rewarded 
by  canonization. 

The  works  of  the  Western  goldsmiths  could  bear  no  compari- 
son, however,  with  those  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  goldsmith’s  art  was  maintained  at  Constantino- 
ple in  a very  flourishing  state  throughout  the  tenth  century. 
The  tenth  century  was.  for  the  West,  an  age  of  iron ; calamities 
of  everv  kind  overwhelmed  Italy  especially ; and  it  cannot  be 


110 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


wondered  at,  that,  amidst  incessant  troubles  and  devastating  wars, 
the  leading  workers  of  the  ninth  century  should  have  no  succes- 
sors in  the  tenth.  The  eleventh  century  was  a period  of  renova- 
tion; the  principles  of  ancient  art  had  fallen  completely  into 
oblivion ; and  the  goldsmith’s,  which  had  already  departed  from 
them  in  some  of  its  productions,  followed  the  steps  of  the  other 
arts.  It  was  necessary  for  the  service  of  the  temples  which  arose 
on  every  side  in  a new  style,  that  there  should  be  provided  ap- 
propriate plate,  and  the  goldsmiths  were  called  upon  to  invent 
other  forms  for  ecclesiastical  vessels,  and  for  shrines  to  contain 
the  relics  of  the  saints ; the  same  enthusiasm  which  led  princes, 
communities,  and  people  to  demolish  the  old  churches  for  the 
sake  of  building  new  ones,  leading  them  also  to  refashion  the 
utensils,  and  consequently  to  melt  down  almost  all  the  pieces  of 
goldsmith’s  work. 

The  forms  then  adopted  for  the  different  church  utensils  re- 
ceived the  stamp  of  a severe  style,  pre-eminently  ecclesiastical. 
Throughout  the  middle  ages  they  preserved  this  character,  which 
was  again  altered,  decidedly  for  the  worse,  by  the  re-introduction 
of  Graeco-Roman  forms. 

The  goldsmith  of  that  day  was  required  to  know  how  to  grave 
his  metals  with  burins  and  scalpers,  to  execute  bas-reliefs  and 
figures  in  repousse  work,  and  afterwards  to  chase  them : it  was 
expected  of  him  to  compose  the  “ nigellum,”  for  filling  the 
incisures  of  his  fine  engravings,  and  to  make  the  cloisonne  enamels, 
with  designs  in  gold,  mixed  alternately  with  gems  and  pearls  in 
the  ornamentation  of  sacred  vessels : nay,  further,  it  was  necessary 
that  he  should  be  a skilful  modeller  in  wax,  and  know  how  to  cast 
figures  in  full  relief,  intended  for  the  decoration  of  his  pieces,  and 
the  handles  in  the  form  of  dragons,  birds,  or  foliage,  which  he 
would  adapt  to  his  vases. 

The  political  division  of  Italy  into  a number  of  petty  sovereign- 
ties, and  the  liberty  enjoyed  by  many  of  the  great  towns,  were 
eminently  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  art  of  luxury. 
The  princes,  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  church,  the  rich  and 
noble  merchants  of  Florence,  Venice,  and  Genoa,  the  opulent 
towns,  all  vied  with  each  other  in  magnificence.  The  armor  of 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


Ill 


tlie  captains,  the  plate  of  the  princes  and  nobles,  the  jewels  of  the 
ladies,  the  sacred  vessels,  and  the  decorations  of  the  altars,  all 
furnished  incessant  occupation  for  the  goldsmiths,  so,  that  not- 
withstanding the  intestine  and  foreign  wars  which  almost  con- 
stantly desolated  Italy,  until  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  art  was  held  in  higher  esteem  in  that  country  than 
in  any  other  in  Europe. 

Nuremberg  and  Augsburg  became,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  principal  centres  of  the  goldsmith’s  art  in  Germany.  At  a 
later  period,  Dresden,  Frankfort-on-th  e-Maine,  and  Cologne,  alike 
produced  skilful  goldsmiths.  The  goldsmiths  of  Nuremberg 
preserved  in  their  productions,  longer  than  those  of  Augsburg,  a 
certain  feeling  of  German  art ; but  in  the  second  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  the  productions  of  the  German  goldsmiths  are  so 
confounded  with  those  of  the  artists  of  Italy,  in  every  thing 
relating  to  the  execution  of  figures,  bas-reliefs,  and  ornaments, 
that  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the 
other,  were  it  not  for  the  form  of  the  vases,  which  almost  always 
preserved  a stamp  of  originality.  Moreover,  nothing  can  be  more 
graceful  than  the  arabesques  which  enrich  the  German  metal- 
work of  that  period,  nothing  more  exquisite  than  the  little  twisted 
figures  that  form  the  handles.  The  artists  of  Nuremberg  were 
distinguished  for  the  elegance  and  richness  of  their  works,  and 
while  they  studied  the  beautiful  for  themselves,  and  wrought  out 
in  precious  metals  their  own  ideas,  they  were  not  indifferent  to 
the  beauties  that  adorned  the  works  of  other  nations,  but  freely 
adopted  whatever  tended  to  increase  their  knowledge,  or  give  an 
additional  value  to  their  productions. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  productions 
of  the  goldsmiths  still  preserved,  in  France  and  Germany,  the 
character  of  the  style  of  the  sixteenth.  Under  Louis  XIV.,  in 
the  goldsmith’s,  as  in  the  other  arts,  the  delicate  style  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance  was  abandoned  for  larger  and  heavier  forms. 
In  1688,  when  France  was  compelled  to  contend  against  almost 
all  Europe,  recourse  was  had  to  every  kind  of  expedient,  in  order 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war.  The  nobility  were  ordered  to 
bring  all  the  pieces  of  massive  silver  they  possessed,  to  the  Mint. 


112 


AET-M  AHTJF  ACTUEES . 


The  king  set  the  example ; he  caused  to  be  melted  down,  those 
tables  of  silver,  those  candelabra,  and  those  large  seats  of  mas- 
sive silver,  enriched  with  figures,  bas-reliefs,  and  fine  chasings, 
the  works  of  Balin,  one  of  the  most  skilful  goldsmiths  of  the 
time.  They  had  cost  ten  millions,  and  produced  three. 

Purity  of  style  was  quite  forgotten  in  the  eighteenth  century ; 
affectation  and  singularity  alone  were  admired.  Dinglinger,  wTho 
settled  at  Dresden,  in  1702,  and  from  that  period  worked  almost 
solely  for  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  was  completely  enslaved  by  the 
vitiated  taste  of  his  period.  He  excelled,  particularly,  in  chasing 
small  figures,  which  he  colored  in  enamel.  The  Green  Vaults  of 
Dresden  contain  his  finest  works.  The  most  curious  of  all,  is 
the  representation,  in  little  detached  figures,  of  about  from  two 
to  two  and  a half  inches  high,  of  the  Court  of  Aurengzebe  at 
Delhi.  The  Great  Mogul  is  seated  upon  a magnificent  throne, 
surrounded  by  his  great  officers  of  state.  Princes,  his  vassals,  are 
kneeling  before  the  steps  of  his  throne,  and  presenting  him  with 
rich  offerings,  which  the  officers  of  the  household  are  eagerly 
receiving.  In  the  foreground  are  courtiers  and  ambassadors  from 
Asiatic  provinces,  attended  by  a pompous  train,  to  J3ay  their  court 
to  the  monarch,  bringing  with  them  valuable  presents,  among 
which  may  be  noticed  elephants,  with  trappings  prepared  for  war, 
horses  richly  caparisoned,  camels,  and  dogs.  All  these  numerous 
little  figures,  chased  in  gold,  and  enamelled  in  colors,  have  been 
made  separately,  and  the  greater  number  are  removable  at  pleasure. 
They  are  distributed  over  a plateau  of  silver,  upon  winch  the 
artist  has  represented  three  courts  of  the  palace  of  Aurengzebe. 
The  court  in  the  background,  covered  with  a carpet  of  cloth  of 
gold,  is  surrounded  with  porticoes  and  small  buildings,  in  the 
midst  of  which  is  the  rich  tent  which  covers  the  throne  of 
Aurengzebe.  Dinglinger  executed  this  work  from  drawings, 
brought  from  India,  and  from  the  narratives  of  travellers  who 
had  visited  the  court  of  that  prince : nothing,  therefore,  can  be 
more  correct  than  the  costumes. 

The  Asiatic  ceremonial  and  etiquette  are  also  strictly  attended 
to.  Dinglinger’s  little  figures  are  chased  with  extraordinary  per- 
fection ; they  have  life,  movement,  and  a highly  characteristic 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


113 


expression.  He  was  occupied,  it  is  said,  eight  years  at  this  work, 
assisted  by  his  sons  and  two  brothers,  one  of  whom,  George 
Frederick,  was  a celebrated  painter  upon  enamel,  and  he  also 
employed  fourteen  workmen.  The  Elector  paid  him  fifty-eight 
thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty-four  crowns  of  Saxony  for  this 
piece. 

Gold  exceeds  all  other  metals  in  ductility  and  malleability.  It 
maybe  beaten  into  leaves  one-two  hundred  and  eighty  thousandth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  a wire  of  only  seventy-eight  one- 
thousandths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  will  sustain  a weight  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  Its  melting  point  is  about  2590°  Fah- 
renheit’s scale.  It  is  perfectly  unchanged  by  fire  with  access  to 
air,  and  the  intense  heat  of  a glass-house  furnace  has  no  other 
effect  upon  it  than  to  keep  it  in  fusion.  It  is  not  acted  upon  by 
any  solvent  except  a mixture  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acids,  or  aqua 
regia,  which  is  formed  by  dissolving  sal-ammoniac  in  nitric  acid ; 
but  it  yields,  like  all  substances,  to  the  solar  rays  collected  and 
concentrated  by  the  burning-glass,  not  only  rising  in  vapor,  but 
becoming  covered  with  a violet-colored  vitreous  oxide.  When 
in  extremely  thin  leaves,  gold  is,  to  a certain  degree,  transparent, 
and  on  being  held  between  the  observer  and  the  light,  appears  of 
a beautiful  green  color.  When  large  quantities  of  gold  have  been 
fused,  and  then  slowly  allowed  to  cool,  cubes,  more  or  less  modi- 
fied on  their  edges  and  angles,  are  frequently  obtained.  Native 
gold  also  affords  numerous  well-defined  crystals  belonging  to  the 
cubic  system.  If  the  charge  of  a powerful  electric  battery  be 
passed  through  an  exceedingly  fine  gold  wire,  it  becomes  entirely 
dissipated ; and  when  a sheet  of  white  paper  is  held  beneath  it  at 
the  time  of  the  discharge,  it  becomes  stained  with  a purple  line, 
caused  by  a deposit  of  minutely  divided  metallic  gold.  If,  instead 
of  white  paper,  a plate  of  polished  silver  be  employed,  it  is  trav- 
ersed by  a brightly  gilded  line,  which  is  firmly  attached  to  its 
surface.  A globule  of  gold,  when  exposed  between  two  charcoal 
electrodes  to  the  action  of  a powerful  voltaic  battery,  enters, 
almost  immediately,  into  fusion,  and  gives  off  abundant  metallic 
fumes,  by  which  its  weight  is  rapidly  diminished. 

When  precipitated  from  its  solutions,  gold  assumes  a dark 


114 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


brown  color,  but  on  being  rubbed  by  a piece  of  polished  steel,  or 
other  hard  body,  readily  assumes  its  ordinary  color  and  metallic 
aspect.  If  precipitated  gold,  in  this  form,  be  heated  to  whiteness, 
and  when  in  that  state  struck  repeatedly  with  a heavy  hammer, 
its  particles  readily  become  welded  and  united  into  a solid  mass, 
without  their  having  undergone  actual  fusion. 

To  distinguish  gold,  a simple  experiment  can  be  made  by  every 
one.  Thus,  if  it  be  found  that  a specimen  is  readily  scratched  by 
silver,  copper  or  iron,  and  scratches  tin  and  lead,  it  may,  if  of  the 
right  color,  and  sinking  rapidly  in  water,  be  fairly  assumed  to  be 
gold. 

Gold  is  not  found  mineralized,  like  other  metals,  but  in  what  is 
termed  the  native  state ; as,  however,  the  species  exhibit  some 
varieties  of  color,  these  have  been  made  the  basis  of  some  sub- 
divisions among  mineralogists.  Gold  appears  under  a great 
diversity  of  circumstances,  both  as  to  the  substance  with  which  it 
is  intermixed,  and  the  appearance  which  it  presents ; for  instance, 
it  is  found  massive,  disseminated  in  particles,  in  films  and  strings, 
and  also  crystallized  in  diverse  forms,  single  and  in  groups.  When 
deposited  in  rocks  or  veins,  it  mingles  with  several  of  the  earthy 
fossils,  and  with  many  metalliferous  masses,  as  iron  and  copper 
pyrites,  vitreous  ores,  &c.,  and  besides  its  occurrence  in  solid 
bodies,  considerable  quantities  have  always  been  found  in  alluvial 
situations,  and  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  where  it  probably  first 
attracted  the  attention  of  mankind. 

The  simplest  method  of  obtaining  gold,  consists  in  collecting 
the  grains  or  small  particles  from  the  beds  of  rivers,  es]3ecially 
after  rains,  which  bring  down  fresh  matter  from  the  mountains. 
In  some  locations,  skins  of  animals  are  laid  in  the  water  course, 
to  catch  and  retain  the  metallic  particles.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  the  fable  of  the  golden  fleece,  so  well  known  in  classic  my- 
thology, has  reference  to  this  practice.  The  Indians  of  Brazil, 
when  it  was  first  ascertained  by  Europeans  that  gold  abounded 
in  that  country,  were  in  the  habit  of  using  fish-hooks  of  gold,  of 
their  own  make,  and  the  excitement  that  followed  the  discovery, 
was  not  unlike  that  in  our  own  country,  over  the  deposits  of  gold 
brought  to  light  in  California. 


• ■ 


SILVER  VINE  VASE,  LINED  WITH  RUBY  GLASS.  p.  115. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


115 


The  dusts  and  grains  of  gold  are  smelted,  in  Brazil,  with  a 
flux  of  muriate  of  mercury ; the  furnaces  are  heated  with  char- 
coal, and  the  contents  of  the  crucible  are  poured  into  iron  ingot 
moulds,  holding  about  thirty-two  pounds  of  the  metal.  Very 
pure  gold  runs  in  about  three  hours,  but  when  it  contains  more 
foreign  admixture,  it  is  proportionately  refractory  in  the  furnace, 
and  requires  more  of  the  flux. 

The  process  of  gold-assaying  among  the  native  miners  of  South 
America  is  very  simple.  A fragment  of  quartz  is  pounded  and 
rubbed  to  a powder,  between  two  pieces  of  granite.  A bullock’s 
horn,  of  black  color,  is  the  only  assay  instrument.  It  is  cut  lon- 
gitudinally into  two  equal  pieces,  partly  on  the  curve,  so  that  one 
half  forms  a kind  of  spoon,  the  inside  of  which  is  polished.  In 
the  spoon  the  powder  is  placed ; the  water  is  poured  in  and 
shaken,  and  then  poured  off.  A second  and  third  water  is  applied ; 
when  nothing  is  left  but  the  coarser  particles  at  the  bottom,  and 
at  one  edge  of  them,  conspicuous  on  the  black  ground,  is  seen  a 
fringe  of  gold  powder,  if  gold  be  present. 

Gold  is  also  purified  by  submitting  it  to  the  process  of  cupella- 
tion,  parting,  and  quartation ; by  the  former  process  the  refiner 
removes  every  particle  of  lead  or  other  inferior  metallic  alloys ; 
and  by  the  latter,  separates  any  portion  of  silver  which  might  re- 
main intermixed  with  the  gold  after  the  first  process.  The  cupel, 
in  which  the  first  operation  is  performed,  and  which  is  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  a little  cup,  is  composed  of  calcined 
bones,  or,  in  some  cases,  with  an  intermixture  of  fern  ashes.  A 
vessel  made  of  these  materials,  slightly  moistened,  and  given  the 
form  of  the  cupel,  by  means  of  a mould,  not  only  resists  the  action 
of  the  most  vehement  fire,  but  absorbs  metallic  bodies  when 
changed  by  heat,  into  a fluid  scoria,  while  it  retains  them  so  long 
as  they  remain  in  a metallic  state. 

In  a small  vessel  of  this  description,  placed  within  side  a sort 
of  bent,  perforated  tile,  made  of  crucible  earth,  and  surrounded 
with  an  intense  charcoal  fire,  the  gold,  in  little  buttons,  is  subjected 
to  the  heat.  As  the  heat  is  continued,  and  the  process  goes  on, 
a various-colored  skin,  consisting  of  the  scoria  of  the  lead,  or 
other  metals  present,  rises  to  the  top,  which,  liquefying,  runs  to 


116 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  side,  and  is  there  absorbed  by  the  cupel.  This  operation  is 
continued,  until  a sudden  luminous  appearance  of  the  mass  in 
fusion,  shows  that  the  last  remaining  portion  of  inferior  alloy  has 
been  given  out.  As,  however,  the  gold  may  yet  retain  some  por- 
tion of  silver,  which,  being  nearly  as  difficult  of  oxidation  as  the 
more  precious  metal,  is  not  thrown  off  in  the  cupel,  the  next 
process  is  called  j>arting,  which  consists  in  reducing  the  metal  to 
the  state  of  very  thin  plates,  by  rolling ; these,  being  cut  into 
small  pieces,  are  digested  in  hot  diluted  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves 
the  silver,  leaving  the  gold  in  an  undissolved,  porous  mass.  This 
course  is  adequate  to  the  attainment  of  the  required  degree  of 
purity,  when  the  amount  of  silver  is  so  considerable,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  gold,  as  thoroughly  to  expose  it  to  the  action  of  the 
acid ; but  when  the  alloy  of  silver  is  very  inconsiderable,  another 
course  is  adopted,  that  of  quartation,  so  called,  because  the  mix- 
ture is  composed  of  three  parts  of  silver  and  one  of  gold,  which, 
on  being  laminated  and  digested  in  the  acid,  exposes  every  por- 
tion of  the  gold  to  the  effects  of  the  separating  menstrum.  In 
some  cases  the  two  metals  are  melted  together,  and  sulphur  being 
thrown  in,  combines  with  the  silver,  the  gold  falling  to  the  bot- 
tom. 

Wolf  proposes,  in  the  “Practical  Hand-Book  of  Jewellers,” 
to  fuse  the  brittle  gold  in  a new  crucible,  and  when  melted,  to 
throw  in  one  or  two  pieces  of  sulphur,  of  the  size  of  a pea,  to 
shake  the  crucible  a little  with  the  tongs,  and  to  cast  it  rapidly 
into  a heated  mould.  He  also  proposes  to  render  small  pieces 
malleable  by  coating  them  with  borax,  and  heating  them  in  the 
blow-pipe  flame  until  the  surface  commences  fusion. 

Both  of  these  methods  are  resorted  to  at  the  United  States 
Mint ; but  the  choice  of  either  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
accompanying  metals  that  give  the  gold  its  brittle  character. 
When  there  is  a quantity  of  iron  present,  the  gold  is  fused  with  a 
mixture  of  sulphur,  potash  and  soda,  which  will  remove  it  by 
making  the  very  fusible  mixture  of  sulplmrets  of  iron  and  alkali. 
If  tin,  arsenic,  or  antimony  be  present,  a good  flux  is  a mixture 
of  borax,  soda,  and  saltpetre,  the  last  for  oxidizing  the  foreign 
metals  into  their  respective  acids,  the  soda  to  give  the  base  to 


GOLD  AND  SILVEE. 


117 


those  acids,  and  the  borax  to  collect  the  slag.  In  both  these 
cases,  a sand  or  clay  crucible  is  preferable  to  a black  lead  pot,  in 
which  last  the  graphite  acts  reducingly.  Where  lead  is  present, 
this  process  may  partially  effect  its  removal ; but  it  is  more  com- 
pletely effected  during  quartation,  and  by  washing  the  fine  gold 
thoroughly  with  hot  water,  after  extracting  the  silver  with  nitric 
acid.  Another  method  of  removing  lead  would  be  to  fuse  the 
gold  with  a little  saltpetre,  borax  and  silica,  whereby  a fusible 
slag  of  oxide  of  lead  Avould  result,  and  might  be  skimmed  from 
the  surface  of  the  gold.  Platinum  and  palladium,  not  unfrequently 
present  in  California  gold,  are  also  removed  by  the  nitric  acid,  in 
parting  silver  from  gold.  Grains  of  iridosmin  have  been  observed 
in  California  gold.  To  obtain  this  metal  the  gold  is  dissolved  by 
nitro-muriatic  acid,  and  the  iridosmin  obtained  pure. 

The  methods  of  assay  above  described,  although  succeeding 
perfectly  for  the  determination  of  the  value  of  bullion  and  other 
unmanufactured  products,  cannot  be  conveniently  applied  to  the 
examination  of  jewelry,  which  would  be  required  to  be  destroyed, 
in  order  to  ascertain  its  composition,  and  consequently  a method 
is  employed  by  which  its  standard  is  readily  determined  to  within 
one  per  cent,  of  the  truth,  whilst  the  most  delicate  chased  article 
is  in  no  way  disfigured  by  the  trial.  This  process  essentially  con- 
sists in  rubbing  some  convenient  part  of  the  object  to  be  exam- 
ined on  a hard  siliceous  stone  of  a black  color,  on  which  it  thus 
leaves  distinct  metallic  traces ; from  the  aspect  of  these  marks, 
and  their  behavior  when  treated  with  nitric  acid  or  a weak  solu- 
tion of  aqua  regia,  the  assay er  judges  of  the  gold  subjected  to 
examination.  The  material  employed  for  this  purpose,  and  which 
is  generally  known *by  the  name  of  touchstone , is  a coarse-grained 
species  of  quartz,  colored  by  bituminous  matter,  and  which  was 
anciently  brought  for  the  purpose  from  Lydia,  although  stones  of 
equally  good  quality  are  now  obtained  in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and 
numerous  other  localities. 

In  order  to  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  value  of  an  alloy  from 
the  nature  of  the  mark  left  by  it  on  the  surface  of  the  stone,  the 
assayer  is  furnished  with  a series  of  small  bars,  or  touch-needles, 


118 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


formed  of  alloys  of  copper  and  gold,  of  which  the  composition  is 
accurately  determined. 

The  trace  left  on  the  stone  by  the  alloy  to  be  examined,  is 
successively  compared,  both  before  and  after  the  action  of  an 
acid,  with  the  different  marks  obtained  from  these  needles,  and  it 
is  supposed  to  possess  a similar  composition  to  the  needle  whose 
mark  agrees  most  closely  with  it  under  both  these  circumstances. 
In  making  these  assays,  the  first  streak  obtained  on  the  stone 
cannot  be  employed  to  ascertain  the  composition  of  the  object 
examined,  as  the  surface  of  jewelry  is  invariably  rendered,  by  the 
process  of  coloring,  of  a higher  standard  than  that  of  the  alloy  of 
which  it  is  throughout  composed.  For  this  reason,  therefore,  the 
object  must  be  passed  once  or  twice  over  the  surface  of  the  stone, 
in  order  to  remove  the  superficial  coating  of  richer  alloy,  before 
making  the  streak  from  the  comparison  of  which  with  those  of  the 
needles  the  commercial  value  of  the  mixture  is  to  be  determined. 
This  method,  although  affording  much  less  accurate  results  than 
those  obtained  by  inquartation,  is  nevertheless  for  many  purposes 
sufficiently  exact. 

Gold  and  silver  are  seldom  employed  for  the  purposes  of  the 
arts  in  a pure  state,  but  are  alloyed ; the  gold  with  a small  quan- 
tity of  silver  or  copper,  and  the  silver  with  a small  quantity  of 
copper,  by  which  their  hardness  and  fusibility  are  considerably 
increased. 

In  this  country  the  standard  of  the  alloy  of  gold  is  calculated 
in  fractions  of  unity  expressed  in  carats.  A carat  is  an  imaginary 
weight,  or  rather,  ratio.  Any  piece  of  gold  is  supposed  to  weigh 
twenty-four  carats,  and  its  fineness  is  expressed  by  the  number 
of  carats  of  fine  gold.  In  this  way  a gold  coin  is  said  to  have  a 
standard  of  twenty-two  carats,  or,  in  other  words,  it  consists  of 
an  alloy  in  which  in  every  twenty-four  parts  there  are  twenty-two 
parts  of  fine  gold  and  two  of  alloy.  The  fine  gold  of  the  jeweller 
is  as  nearly  pure  as  it  can  be  wrought,  but  ordinary  jeweller’s  gold 
is  much  alloyed. 

The  coloring,  as  it  is  called,  of  jewelry,  is  effected  by  exter- 
nally dissolving  out  the  copper  with  which  it  is  alloyed,  and 
thereby  exposing  a superficial  facing  of  fine  gold.  To  produce 


. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


119 


tills  effect,  the  object  to  be  colored  is  first  heated  nearly  to  red- 
ness in  a gas  jet  or  spirit  lamp,  and  then  plunged  into  a weak  so- 
lution of  nitric  acid,  by  which  the  copper  on  its  surface  is  re- 
moved. The  same  effect  is  also  produced  by  placing  for  a few 
minutes  the  object  to  be  colored  in  a paste  composed  of  a mix- 
ture of  alum,  common  salt,  and  saltpetre.  In  this  case  the  chlo- 
rine evolved  from  the  mixture  dissolves  out  the  copper,  and 
leaves  the  object  with  a surface  which  is  readily  brightened  by 
polishing,  and,  when  finished,  possesses  all  the  depth  of  color 
possessed  by  pure  gold. 

The  gilding  of  metallic  ornaments  is  either  performed  by  rub- 
bing their  surfaces,  rendered  perfectly  clean  by  immersion  in 
dilute  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  with  an  amalgam  of  gold  and  mer- 
cury, and  then  expelling  the  latter  metal  by  heat,  and  subsequent- 
ly burnishing  down  the  deposited  gold ; or,  when  the  object  to  be 
gilt  is  entirely  composed  of  copper,  it  may  be  made  to  receive  a 
covering  of  gold  by  being  first  cleaned  and  amalgamated  by  be- 
ing dipped  into  a solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  then,  after 
being  carefully  washed,  placed  in  a vessel  containing  a boiling 
solution  of  chloride  of  gold  in  an  alkaline  carbonate.  The  objects 
gilt  by  this  method  are  afterwards  colored  by  dipping  them  into 
water  containing  a mixture  of  nitre,  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  green 
vitriol ; they  are  then  dried  at  a charcoal  fire,  and  subsequently 
washed  in  clean  water.  These,  and  all  the  other  processes  by 
which  gilding  was  formerly  effected,  have,  however,  within  a few 
years,  become  in  a great  measure  superseded  by  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  electro-gilding,  which  is  described  in  another  chapter, 
and  which  consists  in  depositing  from  its  solutions,  by  electric 
agency,  a layer  of  gold  of  any  desired  thickness. 

The  solution  most  commonly  employed  for  this  purpose  is 
cyanide  of  potassium,  containing  cyanide  of  gold;  the  subject  to 
be  gilt  is  attached  by  a metallic  wire  to  the  negative  pole  of  the 
arrangement,  whilst  in  connection  with  the  positive  is  a piece  of 
pure  gold,  which  is  dissolved  in  proportion  as  the  metal  is  depos- 
ited on  the  object  to  be  gilt.  By  this  means,  therefore,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  coating  is  not  only  entirely  under  the  command  of  the 
operator,  but  the  strength  of  the  solution  is  also  constantly  kept 


120 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


up  at  the  expense  of  the  ingot  of  gold  in  communication  with  the 
positive  pole. 

The  making  of  gold  plate  differs  scarcely  at  all  from  the  manu- 
facture of  wares  of  silver.  Vessels  of  gold,  on  account  of  the 
intrinsic  value  of  the  materials,  are  generally  fabricated  from  the 
most  costly  models,  a circumstance  which  greatly  enhances  their 
value,  so  that  repetitions  of  the  same  patterns  from  steel  dies,  as 
practised  almost  universally  in  the  working  of  silver,  are  by  no 
means  common,  especially  when  the  pieces  are  large. 

Formerly,  by  the  term  goldsmith  was  understood  an  individ-' 
ual  of  a class  more  nearly  resembling  the  banker  than  the  plate- 
worker  of  the  present  day ; as  it  was  through  their  hands  that 
the  sovereigns  of  Europe  and  their  opulent  subjects  transacted 
pecuniary  business  with  one  another ; and,  as,  during  the  middle 
ages  especially,  sovereigns  and  great  men  were  almost  the  only 
classes  of  society  in  Europe  who  could  indulge  in  the  luxury  of 
golden  ornaments,  the  few  artists  who  wure  employed  in  minis- 
tering to  the  taste  were  persons  of  importance,  and  generally 
eminent  sculptors. 

Plate  is  not  accounted  gold  or  silver  unless  of  standard  purity, 
which  is  ascertained  by  scraping  off  a small  portion,  and  by  vari- 
ous tests ; if  found  pure  it  is  stamped  by  assay  officers,  and  its 
integrity  is  admitted  accordingly. 

The  terms  “ molten  ” and  “ beaten  ” gold,  used  by  writers  of 
antiquity  to  denote  such  works  as  were  executed  by  the  process 
of  casting  or  hammering  respectively,  are  still  applied  occasional- 
ly. Articles  are  very  rarely,  however,  cast  in  gold,  owing  to  the 
great  shrinking  which  takes  place  on  the  cooling  of  the  metal  in 
the  mould,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  that 
sharpness  of  impression,  so  conspicuous  in  many  figures  copied 
from  models  by  this  method  in  other  metals.  Although  to  the 
use  of  the  hammer  the  gold  plate  is  in  general  indebted  for  the 
form  it  assumes,  and  the  perfection  of  all  the  details  of  beauty, 
the  labor  of  the  artist  has  been  much  abridged  by  the  modern 
invention  of  steel  rollers,  by  means  of  which  the  ingot  is  reduced 
into  sheets  of  whatever  thickness  or  size  the  work  may  require. 
This  method  of  laminating  the  metal  is  of  great  importance  in  the 


SILVER  CENTER  PIECE  OF  AMERICAN  MANUFACTURE.  p.  120. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


121 


making  of  large  articles,  where,  otherwise,  the  cost  of  workman- 
ship would  he  greatly  enhanced. 

Repousse  work  may  he  traced  to  a period  of  remote  antiquity. 
The  metallic  objects  which  Homer  describes  are  always  worked 
with  the  hammer,  and  doubtless  the  colossal  statues  of  the  an- 
cients were  made  in  this  w^ay.  Whatever  degree  of  lightness 
may  be  obtained  for  cast  metal,  by  means  of  the  perfection  of  the 
mould,  it  can  never  be  compared  with  that  of  a sheet  of  metal 
reduced  by  the  hammer  to  the  utmost  thinness  of  which  its  malle- 
ability would  admit.  The  repousse  process  was  principally  used 
in  the  making  of  ornamental  armor,  and  likewise  in  the  gold- 
smith’s art,  which,  up  to  the  eighteenth  century,  comprised  the 
execution  of  bas-reliefs  and  statues  of  gold  and  silver.  In  tilting 
armor,  the  object  being  to  combine  richness  with  lightness,  and 
the  work  of  the  goldsmith  to  produce  pieces  of  large  dimensions 
of  the  least  possible  weight,  nothing  better  could  have  been  de- 
vised than  repousse  work. 

During  the  whole  of  the  middle  ages,  bas-reliefs,  statues,  and 
vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  were  almost  all  worked  in  repousse,  and 
afterwards  chased,  and  Benvenuto  informs  us  in  his  treatise  on 
the  goldsmith’s  art,  that  this  process  was  alone  in  use  among  the 
goldsmiths  of  his  time  in  France  and  Italy ; that  he  himself  em- 
ployed no  other  in  the  making  of  jewels,  vases,  and  small  figures 
of  gold  and  silver,  and  it  was  only  the  handles  of  vases  and  other 
pieces,  which  are  made  separately,  that  he  executed  by  casting. 

A process  of  ornamenting,  much  in  vogue  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  consists  in  marking  the  design  by  a series  of  dots,  the 
lights  and  shades  of  which  made  the  figure  conspicuous,  and  gave 
a most  agreeable  effect. 

The  preparation  of  gold  leaf,  as  now  carried  on,  is  as  follows. 
The  metal  is  first  reduced  into  long,  thin  strips,  by  means  of  steel 
rollers.  It  is  then  cut  into  little  pieces,  which  are  beaten  on  an 
anvil,  and  afterwards  annealed.  One  hundred  and  fifty  of  these 
pieces,  an  inch  square,  are  laid  two  together  between  leaves  of 
vellum,  about  four  times  that  size,  and  laid  twenty  thicknesses  on 
the  outside,  the  whole  being  enclosed  in  a parchment  envelope. 
In  this  state  the  mass  is  beaten  with  a heavy  hammer,  on  a smooth 
6 


122 


ART-MANUFACTURES . 


marble  block,  till  the  gold  is  extended  out  to  the  size  of  the 
vellum,  after  which  the  whole  is  taken  out,  and  the  pieces  cut 
into  four  wTith  a knife.  The  six  hundred  pieces,  thus  produced, 
are  interlaid,  as  before,  with  pieces  of  ox-gut,  prepared  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  and  called  gold-beaters’  skin.  The  beating  is 
now  repeated  with  a light  hammer,  until  the  leaves  have  reached 
the  extent  of  the  skin,  that  is,  four  inches  square.  The  whole  is 
then  divided  into  four  parcels,  interlaid  with  membranes,  and 
beaten  until  they  are  extended  for  the  third  time.  After  the  last 
operation  the  gold  leaves  are  placed  upon  a leather  cushion,  cut  into 
the  proper  sizes,  and  placed  between  the  leaves  of  a book,  the  pa- 
per having  previously  been  rubbed  with  bole,  to  prevent  adhesion. 
Two  ounces  and  two  pennyweights  of  gold,  in  the  hands  of  a 
skilful  workman,  will  make  two  thousand  leaves,  or  eighty  books, 
together  with  one  ounce  and  six  pennyweights  of  waste  cuttings, 
hence,  the  contents  of  one  book  weighs  4-8  grains,  and  as  the 
leaves  are  3-3  inches,  the  thickness  of  a leaf  is  one  282,000  part 
of  an  inch. 

The  art  of  gilding  consists  in  covering  bodies  with  a thin  coat 
of  gold ; which  may  be  done  either  by  mechanical  or  chemical 
means.  The  mechanical  mode  is  the  application  of  gold-leaf  or 
gold  powder  to  various  surfaces,  and  their  fixation  by  various 
means.  Thus,  gold  may  be  applied  to  wood,  plaster,  pasteboard, 
leather,  and  to  metals,  such  as  silver,  copper,  iron,  tin,  and  bronze, 
so  that  gilding,  generally  speaking,  includes  several  arts,  exer- 
cised by  very  different  classes  of  workmen.  In  all  these  cases 
the  gold  is  applied  and  secured  by  the  aid  of  a particular  kind  of 
cement,  or  gold  size  ; and  this  cement  differs  in  character,  accord- 
ing as  the  gold  is  or  is  not  to  be  burnished  with  a smooth  piece 
of  agate  or  flint. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  gilding  is  very  simple,  and  requires 
only  delicacy  on  the  part  of  the  workman  to  produce  the  desired 
effect.  This  is  done  by  laying  gold-leaf  upon  a design  which  has 
been  previously  drawn  with  a pencil  dipped  in  color  mixed  with 
size,  and  when  completed,  it  is  called  dead  gilding.  There  are 
two  ways  of  producing  bright  or  burnished  gilding,  and  the  first 
process  is  the  same  in  both.  A weak  solution  of  isinglass  is  laid 


P-  14.3  SILVER  WINE  COOLER,  LINED  WITH  ROBY  GLASS.  |>.  122 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


123 


upon  the  article,  the  size  of  the  intended  ornament,  upon  which 
gold-leaf,  of  the  cleanest  kind,  is  laid  smoothly.  When  dry,  the 
design  is  pencilled  on  with  copal  varnish,  and  the  superfluous  gold 
is  wiped  off  with  cotton  wool  dipped  in  water.  The  other  method 
is  to  put  in  the  design  with  asphalt um.  When  dry,  the  gold- 
leaf  not  covered  is  rubbed  off  with  cotton  wool.  The  asphaltum 
is  wiped  off  the  gold  with  cotton  wool  and  turpentine,  which 
leaves  the  ornament  in  bright  gold,  the  gold  having  been  laid 
upon  a bright  surface.  The  gold  in  both  cases  is  fixed  with  copal 
varnish,  and  the  advantage  of  the  latter  plan  is,  it  enables  the 
workman  to  see  what  he  is  doing,  and  thus  give  more  freedom 
and  a higher  finish  to  his  work.  Designs  are  sometimes  covered 
with  powdered  bronze,  instead  of  gold,  when  they  are  pencilled 
with  the  size. 

Gold  lace  is  not  gold  lace.  It  does  not  deserve  this  title,  for 
the  gold  is  applied  as  a surface  to  silver.  It  is  not  even  silver 
lace,  for  the  silver  is  applied  to  a foundation  of  silk.  Therefore, 
when  we  admire  the  glittering  splendor  of  gold  lace,  we  should, 
if  “ honor  be  given  where  honor  is  due,”  remember  that  it  is 
silk  lace  with  a silver-gilt  coating.  The  silken  threads  for  making 
this  material  are  wound  round  wTith  gold  wire,  so  thickly  as  to 
conceal  the  silk  ; and  the  making  of  this  gold  wire  is  one  of  the 
most  singular  mechanical  operations,  imaginable.  In  the  first 
place,  the  refiner  prepares  a solid  rod  of  silver,  about  an  inch  in 
thickness ; he  heats  this  rod,  applies  upon  the  surface  a coating 
of  gold-leaf,  burnishes  this  down,  applies  another  coating,  bur- 
nishes this  down,  and  so  on,  until  the  gold  is  about  one-hundredth 
part  the  thickness  of  the  silver.  Then  the  rod  is  subjected  to  a 
train  of  processes,  which  brings  it  down  to  the  state  of  a fine 
wire  ; it  is  passed  through  holes  in  a steel  plate,  lessening,  step  by 
.step,  its  diameter.  The  gold  never  deserts  the  silver,  but  adheres 
closely  to  it,  and  shares  all  its  mutations ; it  was  one-hundredth 
part  of  the  thickness  of  the  silver  at  the  beginning,  and  it  main- 
tains the  same  ratio  to  the  end. 

As  to  the  thinness  to  which  the  gold-coated  rod  of  silver  can 
be  brought,  the  limit  depends  on  the  delicacy  of  human  skill ; but 
the  most  wonderful  example  ever  known,  was  brought  forward 


124 


ABT-M  ANUTA  CTUEES . 


by  the  late  Dr.  Wollaston,  a man  of  extraordinary  tact  in  minute 
experiments.  This  is  an  example  of  a solid  gold  wire,  without 
any  silver.  He  procured  a small  rod  of  silver,  bored  a hole 
through  it  from  end  to  end,  and  inserted  in  this  hole  the  smallest 
gold  wire  he  could  procure;  he  subjected  the  silver  to  the  usual 
wire-drawing  process,  until  he  had  brought  it  to  the  finest  attain- 
able state ; it  was,  in  fact,  a silver  wire  as  fine  as  a hair,  with  the 
gold  wire  in  the  centre.  How  to  isolate  the  gold  wire  was  the 
next  point ; he  subjected  it  to  warm  nitrous  acid,  by  which  the 
silver  was  dissolved,  leaving  a gold  wire  one-thirty-thousandth  of 
an  inch  in  thickness,  perhaps  the  thinnest  round  wire  that  the 
hand  of  man  has  yet  produced.  But  this  wire,  though  beyond 
all  comparison  finer  than  any  employed  in  manufactures,  does  not 
approach  in  thinness  the  film  of  gold  on  the  surface  of  the  silver 
in  gold  lace.  It  has  been  calculated  that  the  gold  on  the  very  finest 
silver  wire  for  gold  lace,  is  not  more  than  one-third  of  one-mil- 
lionth of  an  inch  in  thickness ; that  is,  not  above  one-tenth  the 
thickness  of  ordinary  leaf-gold ! The  mind  gets  not  a little  be- 
wildered by  these  fractions ; but  we  shall  appreciate  the  matter 
in  the  following  way  i Let  us  imagine  that  a sovereign  could  be 
rolled  or  beaten  into  the  form  of  a ribbon,  an  inch  in  width,  and 
as  thin  as  this  film,  then  this  ribbon  might  form  a girdle  completely 
round  the  London  Crystal  Palace,  with,  perhaps,  a little  to  spare; 

Gold  wire  drawing  in  India  is  performed  by  hand,  and  proves 
to  be  a long  and  tedious  process,  which  only  age  and  experience 
can  master.  A bar  of  silver  is  first  prepared  by  roughing  the 
sides  with  a file,  and  when  this  is  done  it  is  covered  with  gold- 
leaf,  to  the  proportion  of  one  twenty-third  part  of  the  whole 
metal.  It  is  then  subjected  to  a strong  heat,  and  when  taken 
out  it  is  hammered,  and  rubbed  with  a piece  of  wood,  preparatory 
to  the  drawing  process.  This  is  effected  in  a rough  apparatus, 
pierced  with  holes  of  various  sizes,  which  are  fitted  with  pincer 
jaws  to  grasp  and  retain  a hold  on  the  metal  sufficiently  strong  to 
draw  it  through  when  the  cylinder  is  turned  by  the  operator. 
In  this  way  the  wire,  which  is  repeatedly  coated  with  wax,  to 
overcome  the  friction,  is  gradually  reduced.  But  occasionally  it 
is  again  fired  and  annealed,  to  prevent  its  breaking  in  the  process, 


EPERGNE — (SILVER  ) 


- 


■ 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


125 


as  without  such  treatment  it  would  be  too  brittle  to  work  beyond 
a certain  point. 

Other  workmen,  of  more  delicate  hands,  now  take  the  wire 
and  draw  it  through  steel  plates,  reducing  it  in  size  by  degrees, 
until  it  is  not  larger  than  the  finest  hair.  But  it  is  still  unfit  for 
weaving,  and  to  prepare  it  for  this  purpose  a number  of  threads 
are  drawn  over  an  anvil  polished  higher  than  the  surface  of  glass, 
where  they  are  subjected  to  the  blows  of  a hammer,  equally 
polished,  in  the  hands  of  a workman  who  would  spoil  the  whole 
if  not  exceedingly  expert.  Each  blow  is  sufficient  to  flatten  all 
the  wires  so  far  as  they  are  covered  by  the  surface  of  the  hammer, 
and  these  blows  are  continued  till  the  whole  lengths  are  equally 
flat.  Then  they  are  wound  on  reels  and  placed  in  the  hands  of 
other  workmen,  to  wind  round  a thread  of  silk,  so  as  to  appear 
as  a thread  of  gold.  This,  it  must  appear,  is  a nice  and  delicate 
task,  but  one  that  the  natives  perform  by  hand  with  marvellous 
skill,  as  all  their  textures  embroidered  with  gold  thread  will  at- 
test. But  the  wire  that  the  Hindoo  can  only  run  out  to  the 
extent  of  one  thousand  or  twelve  hundred  yards,  in  London,  by 
means  of  proper  machinery,  can  be  carried  to  two  thousand  or 
twenty-two  hundred  yards. 

The  Aztecs,  in  their  rude  attempts  at  figure  drawing,  picture 
their  workers  in  gold,  who  exactly  resemble  the  same  class  of 
artificers  of  various  Asiatic  and  African  nations,  many  of  whom 
understand  the  use  of  the  blow-pipe,  and  those  of  Central  Ameri- 
ca were  exceedingly  skilful  in  soldering,  annealing,  and  chasing 
the  precious  metals  with  which  they  were  bountifully  supplied. 
But  few  of  th^se  relics  have  come  down  to  us,  however,  for  the 
intrinsic  value  of  the  statues  and  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  that 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  caused  them  to  be  consigned 
to  the  melting  pots  of  Europe,  to  be  converted  into  coin. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER. 

SILVER  in  ore,  or  other  of  the  various  forms  under  which  it 
occurs,  is  much  more  widely  disseminated  than  gold.  It  dif- 
fers, too,  from  the  latter  metal  in  what  may  he  called  its  geo- 
graphical habitat.  It  has  been  remarked  that  warmer  regions  of 
the  globe  alford  the  greatest  quantity  of  gold,  but  the  richest 
repositories  of  silver  are  situated  either  in  high  latitudes  or  in 
elevated  regions.  The  most  celebrated  mines  in  Sweden  and 
Norway  are  at  no  great  distance  from  the  polar  regions,  and 
those  which  are  in  warmer  latitudes  are  always  situated  near 
the  summit  of  alpine  mountains,  commonly  covered  with  snow. 
Africa  produces  abundance  of  gold,  but  is  scarcely  known  to 
contain  silver  mines. 

The  most  productive  silver  mines  in  the  world  are  those  of 
South  America,  New  Spain,  Peru,  Mexico,  and  Potosi.  Accord- 
ing to  Humboldt,  the  greater  part  of  the  metal  extracted  by  min- 
ing in  Peru,  is  found  in  a species  of  ore  locally  called  pacos,  of  an 
earthy  appearance ; it  is  a brown  oxide  of  iron,  with  silver  dis- 
seminated through  its  mass  in  exceedingly  minute  particles.  The 
ore  of  Chili  is  similar,  and  one  vein  has  been  mentioned  as  exist- 
ing in  the  Andes,  which  has  been  traced  for  ninety  miles,  and  is 
supposed  to  extend  three  hundred  miles. 

The  Indians  smelt  the  precious  ores  in  a very  simple  and  inar- 
tificial manner,  but  since  the  introduction  of  European  settlers 
into  the  New  World,  the  mining  operations  have  been  carried  on 
with  order  and  skill. 


VICTORIA  SALVER — (OXVDIZEI)  SILVER.)  p.  126 


. 


* 

, 


GOLD  AND  SILYEE. 


127 


Silver  is  extracted  from  its  ores,  properly  so  called,  either  by 
smelting  in  a manner  similar  to  that  practised  with  reference  to 
other  metals,  or  by  amalgamation,  the  former  being  technically 
designated  the  u dry  ” and  the  latter  the  “ wet 55  method.  The 
ore  in  the  latter  process  is  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  It 
is  then  submitted  to  the  action  of  mercury,  which  is  the  actual 
process  of  amalgamation.  This  amalgam  is  subjected  to  the  ac- 
tion of  heat,  in  a distilling  furnace,  by  which  the  mercury  is  sub- 
limed and  the  silver  remains.  The  silver  is  then  collected  and 
melted  in  a crucible,  but  as  it  contains  a portion  of  other  metals 
that  were  combined  with  it  in  the  ore,  it  is  afterwards  refined  in 
a cupel  or  testing  furnace. 

The  method  of  extracting  silver  from  lead  is  every  where 
similar  in  principle  ; it  is  very  simple,  depending  upon  the  differ- 
ent essential  properties  of  the  two  metals.  Lead,  when  melted 
in  the  open  air,  loses  its  metallic  appearance,  and  burns  away 
into  a kind  of  earth  ; but  silver  will  not  burn  thus  when  exposed 
to  the  air  in  a fluid  state.  Hence,  when  a mass  of  lead  and  silver 
is  melted  in  the  open  air,  the  lead  will  be  burned  to  ashes,  or  into 
hard  masses  of  a scaly  texture,  known  as  litharge,  or  silver  stone, 
while  the  silver  will  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  the 
mass  has  been  melted.  In  practice,  however,  and  when  the  oper- 
ation is  conducted  on  a large  scale,  the  silver  is  extracted  from 
the  lead  by  oxidation  of  the  latter  metal  in  a reverberatory  fur- 
nace, of  a peculiar  construction. 

A shallow  vessel,  called  a cupel,  is  filled  with  prepared  fern 
leaves,  rammed  down,  and  a concavity  cut  out  for  the  reception 
of  the  lead,  with  an  opening  in  one  side  for  the  nozzle  of  the  bel- 
lows, through  which  the  air  is  forcibly  driven  during  the  process. 
When  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  lead  is  in  a state  of  fusion  from 
the  reverberation  of  the  flame,  the  blast  from  the  bellows  is  made 
to  play  forcibly  on  the  surface,  and  in  a short  time  a crust  of  oxide 
of  lead,  or  litharge,  is  formed  and  driven  off  to  the  side  of  the 
cupel  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  bellows,  where  a shallow  side 
or  apperture  is  made  for  it  to  pass  over ; another  crust  of  litharge 
is  formed  and  driven  off,  and  this  is  repeated  till  nearly  all  the 
lead  has  been  removed.  The  operation  continues  about  forty 


128 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


hours,  when  the  complete  separation  of  the  lead  is  indicated  by 
the  appearance  of  a brilliant  lustre  on  the  convex  surface  of  the 
melted  mass  in  the  cupel,  which  is  occasioned  by  the  removal  of 
the  last  crust  of  litharge  that  covered  the  silver.  But  the  silver 
thus  extracted  is  not  sufficiently  pure ; it  is  further  refined  in  a 
cupel  lined  with  bone  ashes,  as  in  the  cupellation  of  gold,  and  ex- 
posed to  the  intense  heat  of  a furnace,  so  that  the  lead  which 
escaped  oxidation  by  the  first  process,  is  converted  into  litharge 
and  absorbed  by  the  ashes  of  the  cupel. 

In  malleability  and  ductility  silver  exceeds  all  metals  but  gold. 
It  may  be  extended  into  leaves  not  exceeding  one  ten-thousandth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  drawn  into  wire  finer  than  a human 
hair.  Its  fusion  point,  according  to  Daniell,  is  1873°  Fall’s  scale. 
When  fused  in  open  vessels,  it  absorbs  oxygen  in  considerable 
quantities,  sometimes  amounting  to  twenty-two  times  the  volume 
of  the  metal  itself.  On  becoming  solid,  however,  the  whole  of 
this  gas  is  again  expelled,  and  to  this  circumstance  is  probably,  in 
some  degree,  owing  the  metallic  vegetation  which  takes  place  on 
the  surface  of  silver  buttons,  when  suddenly  cooled  in  the  cupel. 
When  silver  is  heated  to  redness  in  contact  with  porcelain  or 
glass,  the  absorbed  oxygen  combines  with  the  metal  to  form  an 
oxide,  which,  uniting  with  the  silicic  acid  of  the  substance  with 
which  it  is  in  contact,  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  a yellow 
enamel.  When  heated  very  strongly  in  a blast  furnace,  this 
metal  gives  off  sensible  metallic  vapors,  and  if  exposed  to  the 
high  temperature  between  two  charcoal  electrodes  in  connection 
with  a powerful  voltaic  battery,  is  readily  volatilized.  By  fusing 
a large  quantity  of  silver,  and  afterwards  allowing  it  to  cool  very 
gradually,  cubic  and  octahedral  crystals  may,  on  piercing  the 
solidified  crust,  and  running  off  the  still  liquid  metal,  be  obtained. 
When  solutions  of  silver  are  decomposed  by  the  action  of  feeble 
electric  currents,  the  precipitated  metal  is  frequently  found  to 
assume  a crystalline  form.  This  metal  does  not  absorb  oxygen 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  speedily  becomes  blackened  on 
exposure  to  an  atmosphere  containing  the  most  minute  traces  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  which  is  decomposed  by  it  with  great 
facility. 


YASE  OF  OXYPISED  SILVER 


p.  129 


' 

' ' 

■ 

' 

’ 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


129 


It  is  well  known  that  silver,  when  brought  in  contact  with 
eggs  which  have  been  heated,  is  blackened,  and  that  this  discolor- 
ation is  owing  to  the  snlphuret  of  silver.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  this  sulphuret  was  formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuretted  oil, 
believed  to  exist  in  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  but  recent  experiments 
have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  discoloration  of  the  silver  is 
due  to  the  sulphur  contained  in  the  albumen,  and  not  to  that  sup- 
posed to  exist  in  the  yolk. 

Heated  to  redness,  in  contact  with  the  caustic  alkalies,  silver 
does  not  become  in  the  least  affected,  and  is,  for  this  reason,  fre- 
quently employed  for  making  crucibles  to  be  used  when  attacking 
various  substances  by  caustic  potash.  In  the  presence,  however, 
of  fused  alkaline  silicates,  silver  vessels,  to  a certain  extent,  be- 
come acted  on,  and  the  silicate  is  stained  of  a yellow  color. 
Oxide  of  silver  is  reduced  by  heat  alone,  and  a globule  of  metal 
is  thus  obtained. 

On  account  of  its  softness,  silver  is  seldom  employed  in  a pure 
state,  but  is  commonly  alloyed  with  a certain  amount  of  copper, 
by  which  its  hardness  is  remarkably  increased.  In  this  way  con- 
siderable quantities  of  copper  may  be  added  without  materially 
diminishing  the  whiteness  of  the  original  metal,  since  a mixture 
of  seven  parts  of  silver  and  one  of  cojiper  still  retains  a decided 
white  color,  although  of  a less  pure  tint  than  that  exhibited  by 
virgin  silver.  In  order  to  improve  the  color  of  objects  formed  of 
alloyed  silver,  it  is  usual  to  subject  them  to  an  operation  by  which 
their  surfaces  are  rendered  almost  free  from  the  presence  of  the 
metal  so  combined.  For  this  purpose,  the  article  to  be  whitened 
is  externally  oxidized,  by  being  heated  nearly  to  a redness,  and 
afterwards  plunged,  whilst  still  hot,  into  water,  acidulated  either 
by  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  by  which  the  oxide  of  copper  formed, 
is  immediately  removed.  The  object,  after  being  thus  treated, 
necessarily  presents  a matted  surface,  from  the  isolation  of  the 
particles  of  silver ; but  this  aj)pearance  is  readily  removed  by 
rubbing  with  a burnisher.* 


* The  process  of  oxidation  not  only  protects  the  silver  from  further  tarnish- 
ing, but  also  conveys  every  variety  of  tint,  from  white  to  black,  so  that  it  is 
6* 


130 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


The  silver  used  in  the  preparation  of  coin,  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silver  plate,  consists  of  an  alloy  of  silver  and  copper  in 
different  proportions,  fixed  by  the  legislature  of  the  country  in 
which  the  mixture  is  worked.  In  this  country  and  in  England, 
the  same  alloy  is  employed  both  for  the  purposes  of  the  mint,  and 
the  uses  of  the  silversmith ; it  is  composed  of  a mixture  of  one 
hundred  and  eleven  parts  of  silver  and  nine  of  copper,  and  is 
known  as  standard  silver.  In  England,  to  prevent  fraud,  all  sil- 
ver vessels  are  required  to  be  stamped  by  the  Goldsmith’s  Com- 
pany, who  are  empowered  by  government  to  search  all  silver- 
smiths’ shops,  and  seize  all  articles  which  have  not  been  impressed 
with  the  Hall  mark  of  the  Company.  For  the  assay  of  the  arti- 
cles, and  the  impression  of  the  Company’s  stamp  attesting  its 
quality  as  standard  silver,  one  shilling  and  sixpence  per  ounce  on 
the  weight  of  the  object  is  charged.  Of  this  amount  the  larger 
proportion  is  paid  over  to  the  government  in  the  form  of  a tax, 
whilst  a small  sum  is  retained  as  a compensation  for  the  trouble 
incurred  in  making  the  assay.  In  France  three  different  stand- 
ards are  employed.  The  alloy  used  for  the  silver  currency  of  the 
country  is  composed  of  nine  parts  of  silver  and  one  of  copper ; for 
plate,  a mixture  of  nine  and  a half  parts  of  silver  to  one-half  a 
part  of  copper  is  employed,  while  for  small  articles  of  silver  used 
for  ornaments,  an  alloy  of  eight  parts  of  silver  to  two  of  copper  is 
allowed. 

Silver  solder  consists  of  six  hundred  and  sixty  seven  parts  of 
silver,  two  hundred  and  thirty-three  of  copper,  and  one  hundred 
of  zinc.  Besides  being  used  for  the  manufacture  of  various  ob- 


particularly  well  calculated  to  display  fine  modelling  or  chasing,  which  would  be 
utterly  thrown  away  on  a dazzling  white  material.  An  illustration  of  this  is 
given  in  the  salver  at  page  134. 

Silver  can  be  easily  oxidized  by  taking  a little  chloride  of  platinum,  heating 
the  solution  and  applying  it  to  the  silver,  where  an  oxidized  surface  is  required, 
and  allowing  the  surface  to  dry  upon  the  silver.  The  darkness  of  the  color 
produced  varies,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  platinum  solution,  from  a 
light  steel  gray  to  nearly  black.  The  effect  of  this  process,  when  done  along 
with  what  is  termed  dead  work,  is  very  pleasing,  and  may  be  easily  applied  to 
medals,  giving  scope  for  the  exercise  of  taste. 


SIDE-BOARD  EUER OXYDIZED  SILVER. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


131 


jects  of  luxury,  silver  is  also  extensively  employed  for  externally 
plating  tlie  surfaces  of  articles  made  of  less  expensive  metals.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  either  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  object  in  the 
form  of  an  amalgam  with  mercury,  which  latter  metal  is  after- 
wards expelled  by  heat,  or  is  deposited  in  the  metallic  form  from 
its  solution  by  the  agency  of  a feeble  electric  current — a process 
yet  to  be  described  and  illustrated. 

German  silver  is  composed  of  one  part  of  nickel,  one  part  of 
spelter  or  zinc,  and  three  parts  of  copper ; but  all  these  sub- 
stances have  to  be  pure,  and  must  be  exposed  to  a great  degree 
of  heat  before  they  will  unite.  The  refractory  nature  of  nickel, 
and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  metal  free  from  arsenic,  iron, 
and  cobalt,  are  the  causes  that  not  unfrequently  we  see  German 
silver  spoons  of  gold  yellow  color,  while  German  silver  prepared 
from  pure  metal  will  equal  in  whiteness  sterling  silver,  and  will 
not  tarnish.  Upwards  of  fifty  thousand  pounds  of  this  composi- 
tion are  manufactured  in  this  country  annually,  for  which  the 
nickel  is  imported  from  Germany  and  England.  There  are  but 
three  localities  of  nickel  ore  in  this  country.  One  at  Chatham, 
Conn.,  yields  about  three  per  cent,  nickel ; another  ore,  from  the 
mine  La  Motte,  Missouri,  yields  about  ten  per  cent.,  and  a nickel 
ore  has  been  discovered  among  the  copper  ores  of  Lake  Superior. 

Spoons  and  forks  of  German  silver,  when  used,  should  be 
washed  at  once,  instead  of  allowing  them  to  remain  soiled  and 
dried.  In  this  way  they  will  always  keep  bright,  clean,  and  sweet. 
It  should  also  be  remembered  that  hot  water  sets  stains,  while 
cold  water  and  a little  soap  will  prevent  them.  If  by  accident  an 
article  should  become  tarnished,  a pinch  of  fine  salt  rubbed  over 
it  will  restore  the  color  better  than  any  thing  else. 

It  1760  it  is  said  that  silver  table-spoons  began  to  supersede 
those  of  wood,  horn,  and  pewter,  in  England.  Silver  teaspoons 
were  rare  before  the  time  of  Queen  Anne.  Silver  forks,  spoons, 
ladles,  &c:,  are  wrought  upon  the  anvil  in  the  manner  of  steel 
wares,  or,  in  some  sorts,  pierced  out  of  sheets  by  means  of  the 
fly,  and  afterwards  fashioned  by  striking  in  bosses  and  filing. 
They  are  known  according  to  the  style  of  the  handle.  The  em- 
bossed work  is  produced  by  squeezing  them  when  red  hot  be- 


132 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


tween  figured  steel  dies,  by  means  of  a Bramah’s  press.  The 
polishing  is  effected  by  brushing  and  buffing  with  oil  and  rotten 
stone. 

The  brazier  is  the  artificer  who,  in  a general  sense,  undertakes 
the  work  which  requires  to  be  fashioned  or  perfected  by  hammer- 
ing and  hard  soldering ; his  art  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  cop- 
persmith. He  is  required  to  be  conversant  with  all  the  methods 
of  planishing,  not  flat  pieces,  but  tubular,  swaged  and  bellied 
work  of  every  description.  These  operations  are  among  the 
most  ingenious  of  the  trade ; indeed,  the  dexterity  with  which  a 
practised  workman  uses  his  hammer  is  astonishing.  The  polished 
steel  head  upon  which  the  plate  is  planished  is  called  a stake,  and 
may  either  have  a flat  face,  like  an  anvil,  or  be  of  a columnar  or 
globular  form,  and  bent  so  as  to  suit  the  swelling  out  and  driving 
in  of  the  parts  of  the  teapots,  basins,  urns,  and  other  articles. 

These  and  many  similar  productions,  are  shaped  in  the  first 
place  by  means  of  wooden  mallets,  sjffierical  wares  being  always 
bulged  out  in  part  by  placing  them  on  a sand-bag  and  striking 
with  a hammer  upon  an  iron  instrument  placed  inside.  Silver,  as 
also  plated  articles,  after  having  been  a good  deal  hammered, 
require  to  be  lighted  by  being  heated  red  hot.  This  requires 
care  and  attention,  and  the  workmen  have  taught  themselves  by 
experience  to  judge  of  the  temperature  of  the  metal  by  the  fol- 
lowing simple  but  infallible  criterion,  They  first  black  the  article 
all  over  in  the  smoke  of  a lamp,  and  then,  holding  it  over  a clear 
fire  of  coke,  mark  when  the  filiginious  film  burns  off,  as  at  that 
time,  and  not  before,  the  proper  degree  of  annealing  has  taken 
place. 

The  planishing  hammer  for  flat  work  has  two  round  polished 
steel  faces,  one  slightly  convex  and  the  other  flat.  Great  care  is 
required  in  planishing,  not  only  that  the  strokes  be  made  exactly 
level  to  the  work,  but  that  they  be  so  distributed  and  combined 
as  ultimately  to  produce  one  uniform  and  even  surface,  and  not  a 
series  of  indentations.  In  the  earlier  era  of  the  manufacture  this 
end  was  effected  by  the  application  of  a vast  number  of  slight 
strokes  with  a light  hammer,  as  was  practised  by  the  copper- 
smiths. It  was  afterwards  found  that  by  wrapping  a piece  of 


GOLD  AND  SILVER, 


133 


woollen  stuff  over  the  face  of  a large  hammer,  the  marks  of  the 
rough  planishing  were  easily  assimilated ; a thin  piece  of  bright 
copper  was  subsequently  added  with  increased  good  effect,  and 
lastly  a bit  of  hard  polished  sheet  steel  was  tied  over  the  ham- 
mer’s face,  a piece  of  moreen  or  some  such  stuff  being  interposed 
between  them. 

The  parallel  swells  in  most  circular  vessels,  and  the  raised 
edge  of  salvers,  with  a variety  of  regular  mouldings,  are  usually 
produced  by  means  of  swages.  These  are  steel  dies,  grooved  or 
ridged,  the  upper  being  a short  stout  lever,  made  to  play  up  and 
down,  against  its  counterpart  below,  as  in  the  manner  of  tin  plate 
working.  In  raising  silver,  however,  the  face  of  the  swage,  as 
well  as  the  under  part,  requires  to  be  covered  with  sheet  tin,  to 
prevent  the  instrument  from  marking  the  metal  at  every  stroke 
of  the  hammer,  an  evil  which  is  still  further  avoided  by  bringing 
a weighted  cord  over  the  upper  swage,  to  keep  it  from  rebound- 
ing when  struck. 

Although  there  are  few  forms  into  which  an  expert  hammerer 
cannot  mould  such  tractable  metals  as  silver  and  gold,  and  the 
facilities  with  which  others  may  be  stamped  will  be  apparent,  yet 
as  the  former  method  is  exceedingly  expensive,  on  account  of  the 
time  consumed,  and  the  latter  in  the  article  of  dies,  the  applica- 
tion of  steam  power  is,  in  some  large  concerns,  made  to  super- 
sede to  a considerable  extent  both  methods,  by  what  is  termed 
spinning.  This  operation  consists  in  causing  a circular  piece  of 
sheet  metal  to  revolve  in  contact  with  a model  chuck  of  wood  or 
other  substance,  upon  which  it  is  gently  and  progressively  folded 
down  and  moulded  by  appropriately-formed  burnishers. 

In  the  manufacture  of  silver  plate  there  are  many  operations 
of  soldering,  which,  on  account  of  the  situation  or  delicacy  of 
the  parts,  or  some  other  cause,  can  never  be  performed  by  the 
iron,  nor  yet  over  the  fire.  In  these  cases  recourse  must  be  had 
to  the  use  of  the  blow-pipe  and  the  flame  of  a large  lamp  with  a 
great  wick,  or  a jet  of  gas.  The  latter  is  used  when  it  can  be 
had,  and  is  found  to  be  the  cleanest,  readiest,  and  most  economi- 
cal for  the  purpose. 

One  very  ingenious  department  of  the  manufacture  consists  in 


134 


AET-MANUFACTUEES. 


what  is  called  chasing  or  embossing,  these  terms  being  used  re- 
spectively as  the  work  is  superficial  or  deep  in  the  execution.  To 
this  practice  the  goldsmiths  of  antiquity  are  much  indebted  for 
the  perfection  of  their  wares : it  is  indeed  a process  which,  next 
to  the  art  of  engraving,  and  with  much  greater  effect,  exhibits  in 
wonderful  perfection  the  designs  of  the  draughtsman.  It  em- 
bodies not  merely  outlines  with  bold  relief,  but  superadds  di- 
versity of  texture,  surface,  and  even  color ; and  some  pieces, 
wrought  of  the  precious  metals  and  ornamented  in  the  first  style 
of  art,  are  of  great  value.  The  method  of  performing  the  work 
is  very  simple  as  to  details. 

When  the  article  has  received  its  form  at  the  hand  of  the 
brazier,  the  design  is  in  the  first  place  delineated  upon  it  in  a 
very  slight  way,  or,  if  it  be  not  original,  by  means  of  red  chalk 
and  tracing-paper,  after  the  manner  of  transferring  a design  to 
the  copper  plate  by  the  engraver.  The  work,  if  at  all  hollow, 
and  if  the  figures  are  to  be  in  relief,  is  held  upon  a sand-bag,  and 
the  body  of  the  design  is  bulged  from  the  inside  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a hammer  upon  a knobbed  rod  called  a snarling  iron  ; the 
vessel  is  then  filled  with  a composition  of  pitch  and  ashes  from 
the  grate,  and  rested  upon  the  sand-bag  during  the  operation  on 
the  outside,  when  the  wTork  is  perfected.  If  it  be  a salver  or 
other  flat  article,  it  is  embedded  upon  a quantity  of  the  composi- 
tion laid  on  a board  of  the  proper  size,  and  having  a hemispheri- 
cal under-piece  resting  in  a cavity  on  the  work-bench,  by  which 
contrivance  it  is  readily  turned  about  by  the  chaser,  so  as  to  suit 
his  convenience.  The  lines  are  then  sunk  by  striking  down  upon 
and  indenting  the  metal  with  little  blunt  steel  punches  of  shapes 
adapted  to  the  figure.  In  this  way  the  most  elaborate  designs 
can  easily  be  brought  up  into  bold  relief  by  a skilful  workman. 

When  the  articles  are  finished  in  all  their  parts,  the  edges 
dressed,  the  ornaments  soldered  on,  and  the  chased  or  embossed 
work  executed,  they  are  boiled  in  a lixivium  of  pearl  ashes,  to 
take  away  the  rosin  or  grease  wdiich  may  remain  attached,  after 
which  the  raised  parts  are  got  up  by  dry  brushing,  and  finally  by 
burnishing.  The  burnishing  is  an  operation  to  which  plate  is 
indebted  for  that  lustrous  appearance,  so  peculiar  to  the  precious 


SALVER — (SILVER.)  p.  1 A. 


■ 

■■  - - ■ > ■■■■■''  .■  t - 

. 

* 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


135 


metals  when  thus  finished  for  the  market.  The  burnishers  com- 
prise those  of  steel  and  those  of  blood  stone ; the  latter  is  fixed 
by  means  of  cement  in  ferrules  attached  to  the  hafts : they  are  of 
various  forms,  suited  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  may  be  re- 
quired. 

In  burnishing,  (which  is  generally  performed  by  women,)  the 
first  process  is  to  touch  the  article  over  with  a little  brown  soap 
and  water,  to  counteract  any  greasiness,  and  then  they  apply  a 
rough  stone  burnisher  (called  rough  only  as  it  is  less  exquisitely 
polished  than  the  others)  to  obliterate  any  scratches  which  may 
exist,  and,  as  it  were,  lay  the  ground.  This  is  followed  by  a steel 
tool,  then  comes  the  middle  stone,  and  lastly  the  fine  stone  is 
used.  These  stones,  during  the  using,  are  occasionally  dipped  in 
water  in  which  white  soap  has  been  dissolved.  The  articles  are 
finally  wiped  up  with  a piece  of  soft  chamois  leather. 

In  some  silver  articles  there  are  parts,  particularly  representa- 
tions of  the  human  figure,  and  also  animals,  which  are  exhibited 
in  matted  or  dead  work,  of  a fine  white  ground,  in  contrast  to 
the  burnished  portions.  This  effect  is  produced  by  covering  the 
subject  with  a coat  of  pulverized  saltpetre  and  charcoal,  quench- 
ing it  in  a pickle  of  sal  enixon.  Sometimes  the  first  operation 
will  be  sufficient,  but  if  not  it  must  be  repeated  until  the  fine 
white  ground  is  produced.  In  some  very  rich  and  massive  pieces 
of  plate,  the  figures,  instead  of  being  stamped  or  embossed  in 
sheet  metal,  are  cast  from  designs  modelled  expressly  by  cele- 
brated artists  and  copied  in  plaster  of  Paris. 

The  soft  nature  of  wax  was  too  ready  a material  for  modelling 
not  to  be  used  by  sculptors  and  goldsmiths  from  the  earliest 
times.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  modelled  figures  in  wax,  and 
the  art  was  practised  in  Italy  from  the  era  of  the  Renaissance. 
All  the  celebrated  Italian  goldsmiths  of  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries  prepared  models  in  wax  of  their  exquisite  com- 
positions, and  the  great  artists  made  their  first  attempts  upon 
this  material.  Luca  della  Robbia  had  learned  to  model  from 
Leonardo,  the  most  skilful  goldsmith  of  Florence.  The  cele- 
brated Ghiberti,  compelled  to  leave  Florence  in  1400,  on  account 


136 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


of  the  plague,  employed  himself  during  his  exile  in  modelling  in 
wax  and  stucco ; and  the  model  made  by  Cellini  in  wax  of  his 
statue  of  Perseus,  preserved  in  the  Gallery  at  Florence,  is  very 
superior  to  the  bronze. 

In  modelling,  the  workman  uses  his  wax  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  sculptor  employs  his  clay.  He  gradually  works  it 
into  the  required  form  by  means  of  modelling  tools,  generally 
made  of  boxwood,  and  all  the  details  are  nicely  wrought  out  in 
this  material.  Then  a paste  is  made  of  plaster-of-Paris  and  water, 
which  is  poured  over  the  wax  and  allowed  to  set.  When  dry,  it  is 
removed,  and  is  in  turn  filled  with  wax  to  the  thickness  of  the  re- 
quired casting.  A follower  is  made  of  plaster,  to  fill  up  the  rest 
of  the  space,  and  then  a channel,  leading  from  the  exterior,  is 
opened  to  the  wax,  and  a passage  is  also  left  for  the  escape  of  the 
melted  wax.  Molten  lead  is  now  poured  in,  which  occupies  the 
place  that  the  wax  filled,  and  when  cooled  and  removed,  we  have 
the  design  in  lead,  which  is  handed  over  to  the  moulder.  He 
moulds  it  in  sand,  precisely  after  the  manner  described  for  mould- 
ing iron  castings,  and  if  the  work  is  to  be  used  with  little  addi- 
tional finish,  great  care  is  taken  in  moulding,  but  if  it  is  to  pass 
through  the  hand  of  the  chaser  before  it  is  completed,  less  time 
is  spent  over  it. 

When  the  sand  mould  is  ready,  the  molten  silver  is  poured  in 
from  the  crucible,  and  it  takes  the  place  made  vacant  between 
the  flasks,  by  the  removal  of  the  lead  pattern.  In  this  way  all 
ornaments  are  cast,  and  the  casting  of  every  article  that  presents 
two  surfaces  is  made  in  two  parts.  Borders  present  but  one  sur- 
face for  inspection,  the  other  being  soldered  to  the  vessel  they 
adorn.  But  the  handles,  spout,  little  raised  figures,  and  the  like, 
are  cast  in  halves,  and  when  finished,  the  two  halves  are  joined 
together  with  hard  solder,  so  nicely  that  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  the  joint.  The  casting,  thus  completed,  is  hollow,  and  if  the 
metal  is  of  a proper  thickness,  it  will  stand  all  ordinary  wear 
without  injury,  but  if  made  very  thin,  as  is  sometimes  the  case, 
with  those  who  seek  only  to  realize  largely  from  their  manufac- 
tures, they  must  be  filled  in  with  some  compound,  to  give  them  a 


SILVER  CENTRE  PIECE — SUBJECT,  SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLET  AND  T11E  GIPSIES, 


GOLD  AND  SILVEE. 


137 


degree  of  solidity.  The  value  of  such  articles  cannot  be  deter- 
mined in  the  scales. 

All  the  little  ornaments  in  silver  ware  are  cast,  finished  up  by 
the  chaser,  and  soldered  on — with  the  exception  of  a few  very  sim- 
ple devices,  which  are  rolled  out  by  means  of  machinery.  These 
last  require  no  additional  finish  at  the  hand  of  the  chaser,  and  they 
generally  consist  of  a little  vine,  a few  leaves,  or  the  fret  or  key 
ornament,  which  last  appears  to  be  common  to  all  periods  of  art. 

The  consumption  of  gold  and  silver,  at  the  present  day,  for 
household  purposes,  is  enormous,  and  its  application  has  increased 
rapidly  since  the  discoveries  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia. 
The  amount  of  gold  and  silver  annually  taken  from  the  mines  of 
Europe,  is  valued  at  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars.  In  America 
the  yield  is  computed  to  be  one  hundred  and  forty-six  millions, 
and  Asia  produces  twenty-five  millions.  Africa  has  no  silver 
mines,  but  produces  gold  to  the  amount  of  two  millions  six  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars.  Australia  is  also  without  silver,  but  gives 
gold  to  the  large  amount  of  two  hundred  millions.  The  whole 
sum  extracted  since  the  earliest  time,  is  worth,  together,  some- 
thing more  than  twenty  billions,  five  hundred  and  thirty-six  millions. 
Of  this  sum,  there  had  been  extracted  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era,  four  billions,  three  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
millions.  The  increase  in  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  is 
enormous,  and  we  shall,  at  the  present  rate,  gain  more  in  this  re- 
spect, in  fifty  years,  than  our  ancestors  did  in  fifty  centuries. 
The  total  amount  of  gold  and  silver  extracted  in  America,  up  to 
the  close  of  1855,  is  only  about  twenty  millions  less  than  the  en- 
tire product  of  the  Asiatic  mines  since  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  while  it  is  more  than  double  the  entire  past  yield  of  all 
the  mines  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  Australia  put  together. 

The  first  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia,  was  made  by  a bush- 
man,  who  knew  nothing  of  its  worth.  The  lump  was  valued  at 
more  than  £5000,  and  he  parted  with  it  for  a new  suit  of  cor- 
duroy. An  immense  lump  of  quartz  gold,  found  in  Calaveras  Co., 
California,  weighed  one  hundred  and  sixty-one  pounds,  twenty  of 
which,  it  was  estimated,  were  made  up  of  quartz.  It  was  valued 
at  $38,919,  which  exceeds  the  value  of  any  other  lump  that  has 


138 


AET-MAITUFACTUEES. 


yet  been  brought  to  light.  In  the  cabinet  at  St.  Petersburgh, 
there  is  a lump  of  gold  which  weighs  seventy-eight  pounds.* 

An  instance  of  almost  unexampled  prodigality  in  the  waste  of 
silver  in  the  ceremony  of  barbaric  splendor,  was  witnessed  at  the 
interment  of  Radama,  a native  king  of  Madagascar.  His 
majesty  expired  in  a building,  called,  from  the  immense  quantity 
of  this  precious  metal  with  which  it  was  plated  and  studded,  the 
silver  palace,  and  the  coffin  in  which  he  was  finally  deposited  in 
the  tomb,  was  eight  feet  long,  three  and  a half  feet  deep,  and  the 
same  in  width,  composed  of  silver  plates  and  rivets,  in  the  making 
of  which,  twelve  thousand  Spanish  dollars  had  been  worked  up ; 
besides  this,  twelve  thousand  hard  dollars  were  laid  in  the  coffin, 
by  way  of  a cushion  for  the  corpse.  Into  the  grave  was  also 
thrown  articles  of  great  value,  including  the  whole  sideboard  of 
silver  plate,  belonging  to  the  deceased. 

A tomb  recently  opened  in  Southern  Italy,  and  wdiich  is  sup- 
posed to  date  from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  revealed 
many  exquisite  specimens  of  wrought  gold.  The  ground  was 
covered  over  with  gold  thread,  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  a 
golden  carpet  or  cloth,  whilst  round  the  walls  were  disposed  more 
than  forty  vases,  of  various,  though  graceful  and  elegant  shapes. 
In  harmony  with  the  idea  that  the  deceased  wrould  resume  the 
habits  of  this  life,  in  another  world,  the  skeletons  bore  upon 
them  the  traces  of  the  most  magnificent  dresses.  The  principal 
female  figure  was  found  with  ear-rings,  representing  two  peacocks, 
not  merely  in  shape,  but  in  tint ; the  colors  of  the  plumage  being 
given  by  smalt  upon  gold.  Gold  bracelets  of  a serpent  form  sur- 
rounded the  bones  of  the  arm.  The  vest  had  evidently  been  em 
broidered,  for  garlands  of  myrtle,  both  the  leaf  and  the  berry, 
wrere  found  in  the  gold,  and  all  clearly  pierced  with  the  holes 
by  which  they  were  once  attached  to  the  dress.  Round  the 
head  was  a diadem  of  various  flowers,  the  cups  of  which  were 
formed  of  rubies,  and  jacinths,  and  emeralds  of  great  beauty, 
and  sometimes  of  smalts  of  different  colors.  A beautiful  ring 

* The  late  reports  of  the  discovery  of  several  lumps  of  extraordinary  dimen- 
sions, lack  confirmation. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


139 


was  found  on  one  of  the  fingers  of  the  female.  The  circle  was 
formed  of  two  clubs  of  Hercules,  the  point  where  they  met  being 
surmounted  by  a ruby,  whilst  the  upper  and  opposite  part  of  the 
ring  was  a box.  This  work,  described  as  of  the  most  beautiful 
filigree,  displayed  a great  variety  of  beautiful  forms,  and  was  re- 
garded by  all  with  astonishment,  leaving  a doubt  whether  modern 
art  could  produce  any  thing  so  perfect. 

Large  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  are  required  in  the  manu- 
facture of  watches.  The  number  of  these  annually  made  in  Neuf- 
chatel  may  be  calculated  to  be  from  one  hundred  thousand  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  of  which  about  thirty  thousand 
are  in  gold  and  the  remainder  in  silver.  The  United  States  con- 
sume the  largest  quantities  of  these  watches.  With  the  exception 
of  the  gold  and  the  silver  for  the  manufacture  of  the  cases,  the 
other  materials  for  the  construction  of  the  works  or  mechanism 
of  the  watch  are  of  little  value,  consisting  merely  of  a little  brass 
and  steel. 

It  is  generally  known  that  watches  of  American  manufacture 
are  now  coming  into  extensive  use.  They  are  characterized  by 
several  features  of  special  peculiarity.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
absence  of  the  fusee  and  chain.  Those  parts,  which  were  very 
necessary  for  equalizing  the  force  in  the  old  verge  watch,  are 
continued  by  the  English  in  the  modern  lever  watch ; but  in  the 
Swiss  watches,  which  perform  so  excellently,  no  such  parts  exist. 
The  second  feature  is  such  an  arrangement  of  the  parts  as  to 
lessen  the  liability  of  the  watch  to  stop  from  the  presence  of  for- 
eign substances,  and  at  the  same  time  to  facilitate  the  discovery 
of  any  cause  of  derangement,  almost  the  entire  tram  being  open 
to  view.  The  third  and  distinguishing  feature  is  the  principle  of 
making  every  watch  and  every  part  the  duplicate  of  every  other. 
This  plan  has  been  so  far  adhered  to  that  every  movement  will 
fit  every  case,  and  many  parts  can  be  transferred  from  watch  to 
watch  without  alteration.  Any  deficiencies  in  the  carrying  out 
of  this  principle  are  in  great  part  remedied  by  a system  of  regis- 
tration at  the  factory. 

A number  of  curious  watches  were  exhibited  at  the  London 
Crystal  Palace,  one  of  which  runs  a year,  another  showed  the 


140 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


time  to  one-sixth  of  a second,  and  a third  was  made  of  ivory,  with 
gold  screws  and  steel  moving  powers.  It  worked  in  ten  rubies, 
and  weighed,  glass  and  vase  included,  half  an  ounce.  There  were 
some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  miniature  watches  exhibited,  that 
probably  have  ever  been  made.  These  timepieces  were  set  on 
card  cases,  the  frames  of  eye-glasses,  brooches,  rings,  &c.  Some 
of  them  were  scarcely  the  size  of  a gold  dollar,  although  some- 
what thicker.  The  top  of  a gold  penholder,  richly  set  on  rubies, 
contained  a timepiece  with  three  dials,  each  one  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  running  a week  without  winding  up,  and  show- 
ing the  months,  days,  weeks,  hours,  and  minutes. 

Among  the  clocks  there  was  one  run  by  the  equilibrium 
of  water  and  air,  very  ingeniously  constructed.  A clock  in  a 
case,  which  occupied  thirty-four  years  in  completing  it,  with  as- 
tronomical, chronological,  and  other  movements,  wind  organ,  &c. 
A geographical  clock,  showing  the  days  of  the  month,  the  months 
of  the  year,  the  motion  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  state  of  the 
tide  at  some  of  the  principal  seaports  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
France,  America,  Spain,  Portugal,  Holland,  and  Germany,  and 
going  for  twelve  months.  A skeleton  clock,  giving  four  hundred 
days,  and  showing  dead  seconds  by  means  of  a chronometer.  A 
patent  tell-tale  clock,  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  domestics, 
and  a clock  called  the  perpetual  motion  clock,  having  no  Aveights 
or  chains,  and  most  curiously  made. 

And  as  an  offset  to  these  we  may  here  give  the  dimensions  of 
the  clock  in  the  new  house  of  Parliament.  The  dials  are  twenty- 
two  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  the  largest  in  the  world.  Every 
half  minute  the  point  of  the  minute  hand  moves  seven  inches. 
The  pendulum  is  fifteen  feet  long ; the  wheels  are  of  cast  iron  ; the 
hour  bell  is  eight  feet  high,  and  nine  feet  in  diameter,  weighing 
from  fourteen  to  fifteen  tons,  and  the  weight  of  the  hammer  is 
four  hundred  pounds.  The  mere  winding  of  each  of  the  striking 
parts  will  take  two  hours.  The  clock  will  go  eight  and  a half 
days,  but  will  only  strike  for  seven  and  a half,  so  as  to  indicate  by 
its  silence  any  neglect  in  winding  up. 

Until  the  tenth  century  time  had  only  been  measured  by  the 
aid  of  sun-dials,  clepsydras,  or  hour-glasses.  The  invention  of 


ORNAMENTAL  CLOCK. 


p.  160. 


• ■ . •"  ■ v **.•  • 

fe#  . . ■ ~ ' ■ ■ ' ' * v ■ ■ ' ' • ‘ ■ 

; 

. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


141 


clocks  with  tooth  wheels,  kept  in  motion  by  means  of  a weight, 
is  attributed  to  the  celebrated  Gerbert,  a French  monk,  who 
was  ultimately  elevated  to  the  popedom  under  the  name  of  Syl- 
vester II. 

In  the  first  clocks  the  hour  alone  was  indicated  by  a hand, 
which  was  fastened  on  the  axis  of  a wheel.  It  was  not  till  the 
twelfth  century  that  a mechanism  was  invented  for  the  purpose 
of  striking  with  a hammer  upon  a bell  the  hours  which  the  hand 
indicated  upon  the  dial.  Small  clocks,  suitable  for  the  interior  of 
houses,  were  in  use  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  they 
could  not  have  been  common  till  a much  later  period. 

An  improvement  introduced  in  the  art  of  clock-making, 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XI.,  caused  a great 
extension  of  the  manufacture  of  clocks ; the  invention  was  that 
of  the  spiral  spring,  which,  secured  in  a barrel  or  cylinder,  re- 
placed the  action  of  the  weight  attached  to  a string,  which  had 
hitherto  been  made  use  of  as  the  moving  power.  This  spiral 
spring,  moving  easily  in  a very  narrow  space,  allowed  of  the  con- 
struction of  portable  clocks  of  very  small  dimensions.  Carovage* 
or  Carovagius,  who  lived  in  1480,  is  considered  as  the  inventor 
of  portable  clocks,  with  striking  bells  and  alarms.  This  inven- 
tion of  a Frenchman  excited  the  emulation  of  the  Italian  and 
German  clockmakers,  who  vied  with  each  other  in  producing  the 
most  extraordinary  clocks. 

These  portable  clocks  soon  led  to  the  construction  of  still 
smaller  pieces,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  watches.  Their  in- 
vention does  not  appear  to  date  back  beyond  the  first  years  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  first  watches  made  in  France  were 
of  a cylindrical  form ; at  Nuremberg,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
received  an  ovoid  form,  which  obtained  for  them  the  name  of 
u Nuremberg  egg s.” 

In  1657,  Hughens,  the  celebrated  mathematician,  brought 
great  modifications  in  the  art  of  clock-making,  by  applying  the 
pendulum  to  clocks,  in  order  to  regulate  the  movement,  and 
adapting,  some  years  later,  to  the  balance  of  watches  a spring, 
which  produced  upon  this  balance  the  same  effect  as  that  of  the 
weight  upon  the  pendulum. 


142 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Fourteen  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  rings  of 
gold,  with  devices  and  legends  engraved  upon  them,  were  in  use, 
and  in  respect  to  the  fashion  of  these  rings,  the  same  is  now  em- 
ployed to  give  a value  to  modern  works  of  a like  description.  In 
the  earliest  chapters  of  the  Bible  we  find  mention  made  of  rings 
and  other  ornaments  in  silver  and  gold.  Of  such  the  Israelites 
borrowed  of  the  Egyptians  when  they  left  the  land  of  bondage 
for  one  flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  and  anterior  to  that  remote 
period  the  Hebrews  were  in  possession  of  such  works,  probably 
of  their  own  design,  for  among  the  presents  given  to  Rebecca 
were  a golden  ear-ring  and  two  bracelets.  And  throughout  the 
Old  Testament  may  be  found  passages  referring  to  personal 
adornments,  such  as  that  in  Ezekiel,  where  the  prophet  says,  “ I 
put  bracelets  upon  thy  hands  and  a chain  on  thy  neck,  and  I put 
a jewel  on  thy  forehead  and  ear-rings  in  thy  ears,”  which  descrip- 
tion will  answer  equally  well  for  the  present  mode  of  wearing 
jewels  and  other  ornaments. 

From  the  Egyptians  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  well  as  the 
Persians  and  Chinese,  derived  their  knowledge  of  the  arts,  and 
chains  and  rings  of  gold  were  brought  early  into  general  notice 
by  these  nations,  though  the  manner  of  constructing  the  chain 
was  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  present  day,  the  latter 
being  composed  of  an  infinitely  greater  number  of  pieces.  Those 
made  of  silver,  in  certain  portions  of  Russia,  are  not  larger  round 
than  an  ordinary  thread.  They  are  principally  made  by  women, 
and  are  worn  by  the  lower  classes  to  suspend  their  crosses. 

The  Egyptian  women  were  extremely  partial  to  the  wearing 
of  rings,  either  of  gold  or  porcelain.  Of  these  they  often  had  a 
number  on  every  finger,  and  on  the  thumb  also.  The  left,  as 
with  us,  was  the  favored  hand,  and  as  many  as  eight  rings  have 
been  found  on  the  hand  of  a mummy ; in  all  cases  the  greatest 
number  were  on  the  third  finger. 

Pure  gold  is  never  required  for  jewelry,  any  more  than  for 
coin  or  articles  of  domestic  use.  It  is  usually  alloyed  by  intro- 
ducing a small  quantity  of  silver  or  copper.  Silver  renders  it 
lighter  in  color,  and  copper  gives  it  a deeper  shade,  inclining  it 
to  a reddish  hue.  For  the  use  of  the  jeweller  a greater  amount 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


143 


of  alloy  is  often  introduced,  even  to  one-third  or  one-half,  but  the 
manufacturer  who  values  his  reputation,  and  who  is  engaged  in 
making  the  better  class  of  articles,  uniformly  uses  gold  of  twenty- 
two  carats.  Even  then  the  proportion  of  gold  is  very  small,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  description  of  the  process  of  manu- 
facturing. 

The  jeweller  of  the  present  day  relies  in  a great  measure  on 
dies  for  the  forms  he  gives  the  articles  that  come  from  his  hand. 
These  he  has  cut  in  steel  with  care,  and  many  of  them  are  beauti- 
ful, and  often  they  are  very  intricate.  The  gold  is  rolled  out  into 
strips,  and  what  we  behold  is  all  that  it  professes  to  be — pure 
gold ; but  the  proportion  of  the  metal  to  the  whole  is  very  small. 
A strip  of  gold,  not  thicker  than  a silver  dollar,  is  secured  to  a 
bar  of  brass  of  corresponding  size,  but  much  thicker  in  propor- 
tion. A flux  is  applied,  to  unite  the  two,  and  the  mass  is  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  the  fire.  At  the  proper  moment  it  is  with- 
drawn, and  when  cool  the  two  metals  will  be  found  firmly  united. 
The  bar  is  then  rolled  out  between  cylinders  set  in  motion  by 
steam  power,  and  this  operation  is  continued  till  the  metal,  in  the 
form  of  a long  ribbon,  is  not  thicker  than  letter  paper.  It  is  then 
cut  into  small  pieces  of  the  size  required,  and  the  workmen  so 
places  them  in  succession  that  the  die  falls  upon  each  in  turn, 
giving  to  it  the  required  form.  As  the  die  rises,  the  piece  last 
struck  is  removed,  and  another  piece  is  placed  over  the  socket, 
ready  to  be  struck  when  the  die  comes  down  again.  The  die  is 
attached  to  a heavy  weight,  which  gives  force  to  the  blow,  and  it 
is  guided  by  a grooved  framework,  in  which  it  travels  up  and 
down,  at  the  will  of  the  workman. 

If  a ring  is  to  be  made,  the  outer  half,  with  its  ornamented 
surface,  is  struck  at  one  blow.  A number  of  these  halves  are 
filled  with  lead,  which,  when  melted,  fills  up  all  the  inner  surface, 
giving  the  article  weight,  and  rendering  it  stiff  and  firm.  Each 
piece  is  then  taken  in  turn  and  receives  the  back  or  inner  surface, 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  finger,  and  the  edges  are  joined 
by  means  of  the  blow-pipe  ; the  whole  is  then  heated  in  a jet  of 
gas,  so  that  the  lead  is  once  more  melted  and  adheres  to  all  the 
parts,  making  it  a firm  and  consistent  whole. 


144 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


The  burnishing  and  polishing  then  follow,  on  wheels  coated 
with  tripoli,  emery,  and  rotten-stone,  and  if  the  pattern  requires 
an  additional  finish  at  the  hand  of  the  chaser,  it  is  passed  over  to 
him.  To  give  it  a sufficient  body  to  stand  the  blows  from  his 
hammer,  he  fills  the  circle  with  lead,  run  into  it,  and  fitting  all 
the  parts  perfectly.  Then  he  secures  it  firmly  to  his  bench,  and 
without  any  pattern  before  him,  he  works  the  surface  into  the 
form  of  flowers,  scrolls,  and  figures.  It  then  receives  a fine  pol- 
ish, and  is  passed  over  to  a girl  who  puts  it  ujd  for  the  market. 

When  filigree  work  is  introduced,  the  wire  is  drawn  out  by 
means  of  machinery.  For  this  purpose  the  gold  must  be  quite 
pure.  The  two-thousandth  part  of  lead  is  said  to  render  gold  so 
brittle  as  to  prevent  its  being  drawn.  The  form  into  which  these 
wires,  plain  and  variegated,  are  wrought,  is  governed  by  the  taste 
of  the  workman  and  the  requirements  of  the  market. 

Too  often  there  is  a display  of  much  that  may  be  set  down  as 
in  bad  taste,  and  novelty  takes  precedence,  even  to  the  exclusion 
of  articles  worthy  of  the  highest  consideration.  Precious  stones 
are  frequently  so  set  as  to  lose  their  finest  qualities,  and  in  drink- 
ing-cups and  sword-hand les  they  are  wholly  out  of  place.  The 
beauty  of  jewels  depends  on  their  power  of  emitting  or  reflecting 
light,  and,  to  exercise  this  function  efficiently,  the  light  must  be 
intermittent,  or  given  off  in  flashes,  which  effect  cannot  be  at- 
tained except  by  a constant  change  of  position  of  the  reflecting 
surface,  such  as  that  to  which  they  are  subjected  when  employed 
as  a personal  ornament. 

Jewelry  of  value  is  made  with  great  care,  and  will  bear  the 
closest  inspection  and  constant  wear.  The  joints  and  seams  are 
closed  with  hard  solder,  and  the  chasing  is  often  after  the  most 
exquisite  designs.  Enamels  and  precious  stones  are  introduced 
with  due  regard  to  the  end  had  in  view,  and  such  articles  lose 
not  their  value  with  every  change  of  the  fashion.  They  may  be 
regarded  as  works  of  art  in  the  precious  metals,  and  time,  so  far 
from  depreciating  their  value,  only  adds  to  it. 

We  cannot  here  enter  into  any  details  in  regard  to  the  money 
of  the  ancients,  which  was  very  rude  at  best,  and,  in  fact,  a cen- 
tury has  hardly  elapsed  since  the  time  when  any  thing  like  im- 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


145 


provement  was  effected  in  the  character  of  coined  money.  The 
first  mention  that  we  have  of  the  precious  metals  is  in  the  form 
of  money,  though  the  circulation  of  these  metals  for  that  purpose 
was  governed  wholly  by  weight.  Articles  of  almost  every  de- 
scription have  been  made  a circulating  medium  by  the  various 
nations  of  the  earth.  The  Lydians  originated  coined  money,  and 
began  with  gold.  The  Persians  also  used  gold  for  this  purpose. 
Greece  started  with  silver;  hence,  in  the  Greek  tongue,  silver 
and  money  are  synonymous.  Rome  had  ultimately  silver  and 
gold,  but  copper  was  there  first  used,  and  copper  and  money  are 
synonymous  in  their  language.  In  shape  we  have  pieces  of  money 
in  the  form  of  rings,  pieces  struck  with  a die,  and  pieces  cast. 
First  one  side  was  ornamented,  the  other  retaining  the  rude 
marks  of  the  punch;  then  both  sides  were  embellished.  And 
from  these  we  pass  on  from  initial  letters  to  names,  then  from 
one  word  to  several,  from  a head  to  an  entire  figure,  and  from 
one  figure  to  elaborate  groups. 

Silver  and  gold  are  coined,  at  our  mints,  into  dollars,  halves, 
quarters,  dimes,  half-dimes,  eagles,  half-eagles,  and  quarter-eagles. 

Any  person  bringing  good  precious  metal  to  the  mint,  for 
coinage,  is  entitled  to  receive  back,  in  American  coins,  exactly 
the  same  amount  of  fine  gold  or  fine  silver  which  he  brings,  with- 
out deduction  or  expense ; the  United  States  Government  taking 
upon  itself  the  expense  of  coinage.  If  the  bullion,  containing 
both  gold  and  silver,  require  the  operation  of  parting,  or,  if 
toughening  be  required,  then  the  actual  expense  of  these  opera- 
tions is  deducted  from  the  value  of  the  bullion,  in  favor  of  the 
government.  Bullion  is  received  by  the  treasurer,  weighed  in 
the  presence  of  the  owner,  by  the  weigher,  who  gives  a receipt 
for  the  actual  weight,  in  troy  ounces  and  decimals.  If  it  consist 
of  mixed  coins,  or  various  bars,  it  is  sent  into  the  melting  depart- 
ment, placed  in  a red  hot,  clean  black-lead  pot,  melted,  stirred 
up  and  mixed,  and  cast  into  a homogeneous  bar.  It  is  next  given 
to  the  assayer,  who  cuts  off  a piece  of  the  bar,  rolls  out  the  piece, 
clips  it  with  shears,  and  weighs  out  exactly  one  thousand  milli- 
grammes thereof,  which  he  wraps  up  in  lead  and  places  upon  a 
white  hot  dish  of  bone-earth ; the  whole  melts,  and,  oxidizing, 


146 


ART-MANUFACTURES.  * 


every  thing  present  is  usually  absorbed  by  the  bone-earth  but  the 
silver  and  gold.  If  pure  silver  alone  remain,  its  weight  in  milli- 
grammes shows  how  many  thousands  fine  the  bullion  is.  The  re- 
sult is,  however,  corrected  by  what  is  called  the  humid  assay, 
which  depends  on  a definite  precipitation  of  chloride  of  silver, 
from  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  by  definite  measures  of  a so- 
lution of  common  salt  of  known  strength.  If  the  assay  be  one 
of  gold,  after  the  buttota  of  metal  has  been  removed  from  the 
bone-earth,  it  is  melted  with  about  three  times  its  own  weight  of 
pure  silver,  the  alloy  is  rolled  out  and  repeatedly  subjected  to  the 
action  of  hot  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  and  removes  the  silver, 
but  leaves  the  gold.  The  latter  is  carefully  washed,  dried,  an- 
nealed at  a red  heat,  and  subsequently  weighed  in  milligrammes, 
by  which  the  proportion  of  gold  in  one  thousand  parts  is  made 
apparent.  With  these  data,  the  assayer  then  estimates  the  value 
of  the  bullion,  whereupon,  the  treasurer,  if  called  upon,  promptly 
pays  the  amount  to  the  owner. 

Parcels  of  bullion,  of  known  value,  are,  from  time  to  time, 
delivered  to  the  melter  and  refiner,  who  manufactures  the  same 
into  ingots  for  the  use  of  the  coiner.  Upon  the  receipt  of  bul- 
lion, the  melter  and  refiner  assorts  the  bars  into  the  following 
classes : A,  ready  to  be  made  directly  into  ingots ; B,  requiring 
to  be  toughened  ; and  C,  requiring  separation. 

A.  A melt  is  made  by  arithmetical  calculation,  from  bars  of 
the  class  A ; some  above,  some  below  the  standard  in  title,  so  that 
the  result  of  melting  and  mixing  may  produce  ingots  900-1  OOOths 
fine.  In  case  of  silver,  about  seven  thousand  troy  ounces,  equal 
to  four  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  avoirdupois,  are  melted  in  a 
large  cast-iron  pot,  or  crucible,  surrounded  by  a charcoal  fire,  in  a 
wind  or  draft  furnace  ; and  when  the  whole  is  in  a state  of  fusion, 
the  mass  is  diligently  stirred,  and  then,  by  hand,  laded  out  and 
poured  into  smooth  iron  moulds,  making  smooth  ingots  about 
sixteen  inches  long.  Gold  is  likewise  melted  in  this  manner,  and 
cast  into  ingots  into  black-lead  pots,  each  holding  about  sixteen 
hundred  ounces,  near  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds  avoirdupois. 
The  assayer  next  ascertains  that  the  ingots  cast  are  of  the  legal 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


147 


fineness  required ; if  not,  they  are  condemned,  and  have  to  be 
remelted. 

B.  Bullion  containing  anything  but  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
usually  requires  to  be  toughened,  an  operation  commonly  per- 
formed in  the  mint,  by  repeatedly  casting  nitre  upon  the  surface 
of  the  melted  metal,  stirring  it  about,  and  then  skimming  it  off, 
with  the  dross  from  the  base  metal  contained. 

C.  The  mint  processes,  followed  for  the  separation  of  alloyed 
gold  and  silver,  are  as  follows  : in  the  first  place,  the  mixed  bul- 
lion, if  required,  is  melted  with  additional  silver,  so  that  the  alloy 
may  contain  about  three  times  as  much  silver  as  gold ; the 
melted  metal  is  poured  in  a small  stream  from  a height  of  a 
few  feet,  into  cold  water,  by  which  means  it  is  obtained  in  a 
finely  granulated  condition ; the  granulated  metal,  placed  in  a 
glass  mattress,  supported  upon  a sand-bath,  is  boiled  with  nitric 
acid,  which  dissolves  the  silver,  but  leaves  untouched  the  gold  in 
the  form  of  a dark  powder.  The  dissolved  silver  is  poured  into 
a tub  of  strong  brine  of  common  salt,  by  which  it  becomes  con- 
verted into  a white  powder,  the  chloride  of  silver.  After  re- 
peated washing,  the  chloride  of  silver  is  subjected  to  the  joint 
action  of  metallic  zinc  and  hydrogen  gas,  by  which  means  it  be- 
comes changed  to  pure,  finely-divided,  solid  silver.  After  being 
washed  and  dried,  it  is  melted  with  nitre  and  borax,  and  cast  into 
bars.  The  dark  powder  of  gold  is  also  carefully  washed  in  hot 
water,  dried,  and  in  like  manner  cast  into  bars. 

Consequent  upon  these  operations,  more  or  less  gold  and  silver 
becomes  mixed  with  ashes,  dross,  dirt,  &c.  All  these  matters  are 
finely  ground  and  washed,  smelted,  &c,,  for  the  extraction  of  the 
precious  metal.  But  there  will  still  remain  a valuable  residue,  for 
which  reason  the  sweepings  will  be  treated  like  poor  gold  or  sil- 
ver ores. 

The  gold  and  silver  ingots,  cut  and  trimmed,  and  their  fine- 
ness or  quality  approved  by  the  assayer,  are  next  transferred  by 
weight,  through  the  treasurer’s  office  to  the  coiner.  In  the  coin- 
ing department,  they  are  repeatedly  passed  lengthwise  between 
smooth  and  powerful  iron  rollers,  being  annealed  from  time  to 
time  in  a large  annealing  furnace,  until,  by  the  compression,  the 


148 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


metal  assumes  the  form  of  long,  thin  strips,  the  thickness  of  which 
approximates  to  that  of  the  coin  to  be  manufactured.  The  an- 
nealing strips,  covered  with  a thin  coating  of  wax  or  tallow,  are 
then  taken  to  a Burton’s  drawing  machine,  where,  being  drawn 
between  polished  steel  surfaces,  on  the  principle  of  wire-drawing, 
the  thickness  is  reduced  exactly  to  the  extent  required.  To 
attain  this  nice  result,  the  steel  surfaces  are  adjustable,  and  trial 
pieces  are  punched  out  and  weighed.  The  drawing  machine,  as 
here  arranged,  is  an  admirable  piece  of  mechanism.  If  the  strip 
be  drawn  a fraction  too  thin,  which  seldom  happens,  it  is  con- 
demned and  returned  through  the  treasurer’s  office,  with  all  the 
residual  clippings,  to  the  melter  and  refiner,  who  consigns  the 
whole  to  the  melting-pot. 

The  approved  strips  are  next  submitted  to  the  action  of  a 
circular  punch,  which,  at  the  rapid  rate  of  one  or  two  hundred 
per  minute,  cuts  out  the  planchets  or  blank  pieces  of  the  required 
size  for  the  coin  intended.  A most  curious  mechanical  process  is 
that  next  in  order,  raising  milled  edges  upon  the  planchets.  They 
are  rolled  with  great  velocity  edgewise  between  approximating 
circular  steel  surfaces,  so  that  raised  edges  are  produced  at  a 
rate,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  pieces,  from  one  to  seven 
hundred  per  minute.  All  the  form-changing  operations  are  now 
completed,  preparatory  to  the  actual  coinage.  Annealing  and 
cleaning  have  next  to  be  attended  to.  The  planchets,  with  wax 
or  tallow  still  adherent,  are  now  heated  to  a dull  redness,  in  iron 
recipients  placed  in  the  annealing  furnace,  and  poured,  hot  as 
they  are,  into  a tub  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  by  which  means  all 
impurities  are  removed  from  their  surfaces,  the  alloyed  copper 
superficially  dissolved  away,  and  the  clear,  beautiful,  dead  white 
appearance  of  unburnished  silver  is  elicited.  Adhering  acid  is 
washed  away  in  water,  and  adhering  water  dried  away  by  hot 
mahogany  sawdust,  in  an  ingenious  rotating  apparatus  heated  by 
steam. 

The  coining  consists  essentially  in  compressing  the  prepared 
gold  or  silver  blanks,  with  very  great  force,  between  engraved 
dies  of  steel,  of  extreme  hardness  and  high  polish.  The  mechani- 
cal principle  brought  into  play  is  the  same  as  that  in  the  ordinary 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


149 


printing-press — the  genicular  or  elbow  power,  by  which,  with  sus- 
taining parts  of  sufficient  strength,  an  almost  incalculable  degree 
of  pressure  may  be  commanded.  Each  operating  press  requires 
a man  to  watch  it,  to  oil  the  joints  occasionally,  and  to  keep  a 
vertical  brass  tube  supplied  with  the  blanks  or  planchets  to  be 
coined.  The  untiring  press  goes  on,  seizing  with  iron  fingers 
from  the  tube  a planchet  of  its  own  accord,  carefully  adjusting  it 
to  the  retracted  dies,  squeezes  it  with  a force  wonderful  to  con- 
template, and  then  quietly  and  safely  depositing  it  in  the  box 
placed  to  receive  it.  From  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pieces,  depending  upon  the  size,  are  thus  coined  in  one  minute’s 
time.  The  obverse,  reverse,  and  indented  work  upon  the  edge, 
are  all  completed  at  a single  effort  of  the  press. 

Though  stamped  and  perfectly  finished,  gold  and  silver  do 
not  legally  become  money  until  the  coiner  has  formally  delivered 
it  to  the  treasurer.  It  must  be  seen  that  the  pieces  possess  the 
weight  required  by  law.  If  any  prove  too  light  on  trial,  a cir- 
cumstance that  rarely  happens,  such  are  defaced  and  condemned, 
to  be  remelted. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ENAMELS. 

TjWAMEL  is  simply  a vitreous  paste,  resembling  glass,  and  de- 
rives  its  color  from  metallic  oxides,  it  being  either  transparent 
or  opaque,  according  to  the  nature  of  its  component  parts.  All 
metals  may  be  employed  for  the  groundwork,  with  the  exception 
of  brass,  which  fuses  at  too  low  a heat  to  melt  the  enamel.  But 
on  gold,  silver  and  copper,  it  can  readily  be  employed  as-  a means 
of  ornament.  The  colors  usually  employed  in  enamelling  are  blue, 
green,  red  and  white ; the  first  is  derived  from  cobalt,  the  second 
from  copper,  the  third  from  iron  or  gold,  and  the  last  from  tin. 
The  manner  of  preparing  and  using  them  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  refer  to. 

The  art  of  enamelling  is  of  very  early  date,  and  its  application 
to  ornamenting  articles  of  domestic  use,  may  be  traced  among 
almost  all  the  civilized  nations  of  antiquity.  It  was  practised  by 
the  Egyptians,  and  articles  richly  ornamented  with  enamel  have 
been  discovered  amid  the  ruins  of  Xineveh  and  Babylon.  The 
art  was  known  in  England  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  at  Ox- 
ford there  is  an  enamelled  jewel  which  belonged  to  Alfred,  and 
which,  as  appears  by  the  inscription,  was  made  by  his  order  about 
A.D.  887. 

Enamel  is  applied  to  metals  in  three  different  ways,  which  are 
severally  known  as  incrusted,  translucid  upon  relief,  and  painted. 
In  the  first  kind,  the  metal  describing  the  outline  of  the  design, 


ENAMELS. 


151 


and  sometimes  every  portion  of  the  figure,  receive  into  interstices 
previously  prepared,  the  vitreous  matter  which  gives  the  coloring 
of  the  subject,  or  sometimes  only  the  ground.  In  the  second,  the 
design  is  executed  by  means  of  a delicate  chiselling,  in  bas-relief, 
upon  the  metal,  the  surface  of  which  is  covered  with  translucid 
enamels.  In  the  third  kind  the  metal  only  answers  to  the  canvas 
or  wood  in  oil  painting.  Verifiable  colors  are  laid  on  with  a 
brush,  and  produce  at  once  the  design  and  the  coloring. 

Incrusted  enamels  are  subdivided  into  two  classes,  the  one 
known  by  the  name  of  cloisonne , and  the  other  is  called  champlevb. 
The  different  manner  of  disposing  the  metal  for  forming  the  out- 
line of  the  design  has  given  rise  to  this  distinction. 

For  the  cloisonne  enamels  the  plate  of  metal  was  provided 
with  a rim,  for  the  purpose  of  retaining  the  enamel.  Slender 
strips  of  the  metal,  of  the  same  width  as  the  rim,  were  then  taken 
and  bent  in  short  lengths,  and  fashioned  in  such  a manner  as  to 
form  the  outline  of  the  pattern.  These  short  bits  were  then 
joined  together  and  fixed  in  an  upright  position  upon  the  plate. 
The  intervening  spaces  were  then  filled  up  with  the  various 
enamels,  reduced  to  a fine  powder,  and  moistened  into  a paste. 
The  piece  was  then  placed  in  the  furnace,  and  when  the  fusion  of 
the  vitreous  matter  wras  complete,  w^as  withdrawn  with  certain 
precautions,  that  the  cooling  might  be  effected  very  gradually. 
If  in  the  firing  the  enamel  had  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  rim, 
and  the  other  strips  of  metal,  it  was  again  overlaid  with  a very 
fine  coating,  and  the  piece  returned  to  the  fire. 

Pure  gold  and  very  fusible  enamels  were  necessary  for  this 
process,  in  order  that  the  plate  might  not  undergo  any  alteration 
from  the  action  of  the  fire,  or  ’ the  delicate  strips  of  metal  be 
melted  by  the  heat  which  fused  the  enamel  paste. 

In  the  champleve  enamels,  as  in  the  cloisonne,  a delicate  fine 
of  metal  describes  on  the  surface  of  the  enamel  the  principal  out- 
line of  the  design ; but  the  outline,  instead  of  being  arranged 
separately,  and  then  applied  to  the  plate  which  is  to  receive  the 
vitreous  matter,  is  formed  out  of  a portion  of  the  plate  itself. 

After  having  prepared  and  polished  a piece  of  metal  varying 
in  thickness  from  one-twenty-fifth  to  one-fifth  of  an  inch,  the  artist 


152 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


traced  out  those  parts  of  it  which,  being  kept  on  a level  with  the 
surface  of  the  enamel,  were  to  form  the  outline  of  his  subject ; 
then  with  scalpers  he  tooled  or  hollowed  out  all  the  spaces  to  be 
filled  by  the  different  enamels,  leaving  certain  slender  lines  which 
served  to  keep  the  enamel  colors  distinct,  and  to  define  the  prin- 
cipal outline.  In  the  cavities  thus  prepared  he  introduced  the 
vitreous  matter,  either  dry  or  purified,  or  reduced  to  the  con- 
sistency of  a paste  by  means  of  water  or  some  glutinous  liquid. 
The  fusion  of  this  was  effected  by  the  process  already  described. 

Cloisonne  enamels  are  usually  enclosed  in  a little  case  of  metal, 
in  which  the  figures  are  composed  of  enamel,  as  is  also  the  back- 
ground upon  which  they  are  represented.  In  this  little  case  the 
outline  alone  is  formed  of  metal,  by  means  of  slender  lines,  which 
are  slightly  attached  by  their  edge  to  the  plate  at  the  back.  But 
sometimes  it  is  the  metal  which  serves  as  a background  to  the 
picture,  and  in  this  case  a portion  of  the  field  or  plate  of  the 
metal,  corresponding  with  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  figure 
or  subject,  has  been  scooped  out  or  removed  for  the  purpose : 
the  lines  of  the  outline  being  still  expressed  by  very  delicate 
strips  of  metal  inserted  in  this  raised  part.  The  flesh  tints  are 
always  expressed  by  enamel,  which  the  artist  has  endeavored  to 
assimilate  as  near  as  possible  to  the  natural  color  of  flesh.  The 
palette  of  the  Greek  enamellers  was  very  rich ; the  colors  they 
used  were  white,  bright  red,  brownish  red,  dark  and  light  blue, 
green,  yellow,  violet,  flesh  color,  and  black.  White,  black,  and 
lapis-lazuli  blue  are  always  opaque,  the  other  colors  are  some- 
times opaque,  sometimes  semi-transparent ; yellow  is  of  rare 
occurrence. 

The  cloisonne  enamels  were  generally  executed  upon  gold,  in 
pieces  of  small  dimensions,  which  were  then  enclosed  in  a setting 
or  collet,  and  fixed  upon  the  objects  they  were  destined  to  orna- 
ment, and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  precious  stones  with  which 
they  were  alternately  placed.  These  little  plates  of  enamels  hav- 
ing thus  been  prepared  separately,  it  follows  as  a natural  conse- 
quence that  they  often  have  been  used  in  the  decoration  of  pieces 
for  which  they  were  not  originally  made.  Thus  we  find  Greek 
enamels  upon  French,  Italian,  and  German  monuments,  and  the 


ENAMELS. 


153 


age  of  these  monuments  is  not  always  a true  criterion  by  which 
to  determine  the  age  of  the  enamels,  which  are  often  of  more 
ancient  date. 

The  cloisonne  enamels  were  in  great  repute,  and  were  em- 
ployed in  the  decorations  of  objects  of  every  description,  and 
particularly  crosses,  shrines  of  holy  relics,  and  caskets.  Swords, 
crowns,  and  even  vestments,  were  enriched  with  enamels  of  this 
kind.  The  gloves  which  formed  part  of  the  imperial  costume  of 
Charlemagne,  preserved  in  the  treasury  at  Vienna,  are  embroid- 
ered with  pearls,  and  ornamented  with  little  plates  of  cloisonne 
enamel. 

Champleve  enamels  are  almost  always  executed  upon  copper ; 
the  cheapness  of  the  material  admitting  the  use  of  plates  of  large 
size.  These  enamels  are  not,  like  the  cloisonne  enamels,  attached 
as  ornaments  to  pieces  of  jewelry  or  plafe,  but  are  mostly,  on  the 
contrary,  complete  works  of  art  in  themselves,  and,  owing  to  the 
depth  of  the  sculpture  and  the  thickness  of  the  enamel,  possess 
great  solidity,  and  are  durable  in  their  colors.  The  vitreous 
matter  is  employed  in  two  ways : sometimes  it  gives  the  colors 
to  the  carnations  or  flesh  tints,  the  draperies,  and  the  ground, 
and  in  that  case  the  metal  which  touches  the  surface  serves 
merely  to  trace  the  principal  outlines  of  the  design ; at  other 
times  it  is  employed  to  color  nothing  but  the  ground,  and  to  form 
a border  round  the  figures  of  gilded  metal,  which  are  either 
expressed  by  fine  engraving  on  the  plate,  or  are  chiselled  in  bas- 
relief. 

The  practice  of  representing  the  flesh  tints  by  enamels  ap- 
proaching the  natural  color,  and  of  using  colors  in  the  draperies, 
is  peculiar  to  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  When  the 
figure  was  very  minute,  the  enamellers  of  that  period  expressed 
the  carnations  by  lines  incised  on  the  gilded  metal ; the  draperies 
were  then  colored. 

The  second  manner  of  disposing  the  enamels,  which  consists 
in  employing  it  only  for  giving  colors  to  the  ground,  was  that 
almost  exclusively  adopted  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies. It  is  difficult  to  meet  with  enamels  of  this  period  in  which 
the  figures  are  expressed  otherwise  than  by  fine  engraving  on 


154 


AKT-MANUFACTURES. 


the  gilded  metal,  or  else  by  reliefs  upon  the  enamelled  ground, 
which  is  nearly  always  of  a brilliant  blue.  The  evident  progress 
made  in  the  art  of  drawing  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was  doubt- 
less the  principal  cause  of  this  alteration  in  the  process. 

The  art  of  enamelling  by  incrustation  lost  much  by  the  change ; 
as  soon  as  the  enameller,  confined  to  the  work  of  coloring  the 
background,  became  a mere  auxiliary  to  the  graver,  he  lost  his 
position  as  an  artist,  and  descended  to  that  of  a machine.  The 
facility  of  executing  works  of  this  description  occasioned  their 
production,  which  led  to  the  depreciation  and  eventually  the 
extinction  of  this  fine  art. 

The  painting  on  incrusted  enamels  had  all  the  faults  of  the 
early  mosaics:  the  same  stiffness  of  outline,  either  absence  or 
erudity  of  shading,  want  of  perspective  and  parallelism  of  the 
figures,  which  were  either  isolated  or  placed  upon  a single  line. 
The  brilliancy  of  their  imperishable  colors  was  insufficient  to 
atone  for  these  faults  in  the  eyes  of  the  great  Italian  artists,  who, 
during  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  shook  off  the 
Byzantine  yoke  and  struck  out  into  new  j^aths  of  art.  Without 
giving  up  the  use  of  enamel,  which,  by  the  brilliancy  and  dura- 
bility of  its  colors,  was  eminently  calculated  for  the  decoration 
of  works  of  the  goldsmith,  they  sought  to  employ  it  in  another 
manner,  and  to  adapt  it  to  the  productions  of  their  genius. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  immense  riches  of  the  clergy  and  the 
progressive  increase  of  luxury,  occasioned,  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, the  almost  exclusive  adoption  of  gold  and  silver  for  all  ves- 
sels for  sacred  use,  and  the  plate  of  the  nobility.  The  sacred 
vessels  and  reliquaries  were  now  made  of  these  costly  materials 
only ; and  the  altars  were  overlaid  with  bas-reliefs  richly  chased 
in  gold  and  silver. 

Enamel  work  by  incrustation,  which  required  plates  of  metal 
of  considerable  thickness,  did  not  meet  the  exigencies  of  the 
goldsmith,  who,  in  multiplying  the  number,  diminished  of  neces- 
sity the  weight  of  the  objects  he  produced. 

Such  were  doubtless  the  different  causes  which  brought  about, 
in  Italy  and  France,  a change  in  the  manner  of  applying  enamels. 
The  incrustations  of  enamel  upon  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  were 


ENAMELS. 


155 


replaced  by  fine  chasings,  the  ornaments  and  subjects  selected  by 
the  artists ; the  surface  of  these  was  afterwards  colored  by  fine 
translucid  enamels  of  most  brilliant  hues,  and  so  incorporated 
with  the  chasing  as  to  give  to  the  whole  the  appearance  of  a 
finished  painting  reflecting  a metallic  lustre. 

The  process  was  as  follows  : On  a plate  of  gold  or  silver,  often 
very  thin,  the  artist  marked  out  by  an  incisure,  formed  to  receive 
the  enamel,  the  outline  of  the  space  that  the  part  to  be  enamelled 
was  to  fill ; then,  with  very  delicate  tools,  he  engraved  on  it  the 
figure  or  subject  he  wished  to  represent ; the  more  prominent 
parts  of  the  flesh  and  draperies  then  presented  a very  slight 
relief,  and  the  lines  of  the  face  were  often  only  expressed  by 
engraving. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  in  the  hands 
of  the  most  skilful  artists  the  art  of  enamelling  was  brought  to 
perfection,  the  plate  was  prepared  in  a different  manner.  The 
plate  of  gold  or  silver  was  fixed  by  heat  upon  a stucco  composed 
of  pitch  and  ground  brick,  mixed  with  a little  wax.  After  that, 
having  traced  with  a compass  the  outline  of  the  space  to  be  filled, 
all  that  part  of  the  plate  was  depressed  to  a depth  corresponding 
with  the  thickness  which  was  judged  suitable  for  the  enamel. 
The  artist  then  drew  upon  this  depressed  portion  the  subject  to 
be  represented,  and  afterwards,  with  very  fine  tools,  engraved 
it  in  relief  to  a thickness  equal  to  that  of  two  sheets  of  paper. 

An  extensive  variety  of  colors  was  used  in  this  kind  of  enamel. 
We  find  greens,  pinks,  reds,  violets,  grays,  blacks,  several  kinds 
of  brown,  and  light  blue.  White  and  lapis-lazuli  blue,  which  are 
always  opaque,  are  not  used ; and  as  the  flesh  color  must  always 
be  based  on  a white  enamel,  which  also  gives  opacity,  the  flesh- 
tints  in  these  enamels  upon  relief  are  expressed  by  the  metal 
ground  itself,  seen  through  either  a colorless  enamel,  or  one 
slightly  tinged  with  violet. 

Translucid  enamels  upon  relief  are  not  so  rare  as  the  Cloisonne 
enamels,  but  as  the  utensils  of  domestic  life  which  were  deco- 
rated with  them  have  been  destroyed  through  change  of  fashion, 
these  enamels  are  most  frequently  to  be  found  in  the  treasures  of 


156 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


churches,  upon  sacred  vessels  or  reliquaries,  which  have  owed 
their  preservation  to  their  sacred  character. 

When,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  works  of 
copper  enamel,  which  had  been  so  esteemed  for  nearly  four  cen- 
turies, were  now  losing  their  value  through  the  increasing  taste 
for  materials  of  gold  and  silver,  and  the  translucid  enamels  that 
decorated  them,  the  Limousin  enamellers  (who  had  been  long 
celebrated  for  their  skill  in  the  art)  were  compelled  to  invent 
some  new  mode  of  applying  enamel  to  the  representation  of  sub- 
jects. These  endeavors  gave  rise  to  the  invention  of  true  paint- 
ing upon  enamel.  The  process  employed  in  this  new  kind  of 
enamel  essentially  differed  from  those  hitherto  in  use.  The  enam- 
ellers no  longer  required  the  assistance  of  the  graver  to  express 
the  outlines  of  the  design ; the  metal  was  entirely  concealed  under 
the  enamel,  and  if  any  of  it  remained  subjective  to  the  painting, 
it  was  in  the  same  manner  as  wood  or  canvas  in  oil  painting ; the 
enamel  spread  by  the  pencil  upon  the  surface  expressed  at  the 
same  time  the  outline  and  the  coloring. 

It  was  probably  the  modification  introduced  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  in  the  art  of  painting  upon  glass,  which  suggested  this 
new  style  of  enamelling.  Mosaic  grounds  of  colored  glass  were 
at  this  time  almost  entirely  discontinued,  and  artists  had  begun 
to  paint  superficially  upon  glass  with  enamel  colors.  From  that 
time  it  became  evident  that  what  was  done  upon  glass  might  also 
be  done  on  copper,  with  the  difference  only  of  giving,  either 
naturally  or  artificially,  complete  opaqueness  to  the  colors. 

The  first  attempts  at  this  new  kind  of  painting  were,  of  neces- 
sity, very  imperfect.  The  enamel  colors  of  that  date  are  applied 
upon  the  metal  in  layers  sufficiently  thick  to  admit  of  the  move- 
ment of  the  drapery  which  covers  the  shoulders  of  a representa- 
tion of  Saint  Christopher,  and  the  agitation  of  the  waves  which 
bathe  his  legs,  being  expressed  by  inequalities  of  the  enamel 
paste,  which  is  of  an  uniform  color.  The  drawings  of  these  first 
attempts  is  always  very  defective.  The  enamel  colors  are  applied 
immediately  upon  the  metal  itself,  and  are  only  attached  by  the 
fusion  which  determine  the  degree  of  adherence. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  painting  in 


ENAMELS. 


157 


enamel  had  made  great  progress.  On  an  unpolished  plate  of 
copper,  the  enameller  traced  with  a style  the  outline  of  the  figure 
or  subject  to  be  represented.  The  plate  was  then  overlaid  with 
a thin  translucid  flux,  after  which  the  enameller  began  to  apply 
the  colors.  The  outlines  of  the  drawing  traced  by  the  style  were 
first  covered  over  with  a dark-colored  enamel,  which  was  to  give 
the  outline  upon  the  surface  of  the  picture ; the  draperies,  the 
sky,  the  background  and  accessories,  were  then  expressed  by 
enamel  colors  in  tolerably  thick  layers,  filling  up  the  interstices 
formed  by  the  dark-colored  outline  which  enclosed  the  different 
enamel  colors,  performing  as  it  were  the  same  office  as  the  lines 
of  metal  in  the  incrusted  enamels.  There  was,  therefore,  a total 
absence  of  shadow  in  this  painting,  in  which  the  first  design  was 
expressed  by  thickness  of  colors.  The  space  for  the  flesh-tints 
was  filled  with  a black  or  deep  violet  enamel ; they  were  then 
rendered  upon  this  ground  by  white  enamel  applied  in  layers 
more  or  less  thin,  in  order  to  preserve  the  shadows,  and  thereby 
obtain  a sketch  very  lightly  in  relief,  of  the  principal  bony  and 
muscular  parts  of  the  face  and  the  body ; consequently,  all  the 
carnations  in  this  process  have  a bistre  or  violet  hue  by  which 
they  may  be  easily  recognized. 

In  order  to  produce  effect  in  the  rest  of  the  painting,  in  which 
the  shadows  were  entirely  wanting,  the  light  parts  of  the  hair, 
of  the  draperies  and  the  background,  were,  most  frequently,  in- 
dicated by  touches  of  gold.  The  imitations  of  precious  stones 
applied  upon  the  mantles  of  saints  and  upon  the  draperies,  are 
peculiar  to  this  description  of  enamels,  which  are  generally  painted 
upon  flat  pieces  of  copper,  rather  thick,  and  coated  with  a thick 
enamel  at  the  back,  presenting  a vitreous  appearance. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  a great  change  was 
made  in  the  processes  employed  by  the  enamel  painters.  They 
added  an  enamel  ground  to  the  plate  of  copper  before  beginning 
the  painting,  and  the  colors,  thus  rendered  capable  of  being 
worked  with  freedom  and  at  different  times,  became  susceptible 
of  every  kind  of  combination  and  of  every  degradation  of  tint 
resulting  from  their  fusion.  The  drawing  and  painting  were  also 
rendered  more  perfect  * from  its  being  easy  to  retouch  them. 


* 158 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


This  led  to  the  employment  of  enamel  almost  exclusively  for  the 
representation  of  sacred  subjects,  from  the  works  of  Raffaelle  and 
other  great  Italian  artists,  as  well  as  those  of  the  German  school. 

From  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  enamel- 
lers  no  longer  confined  themselves  to  the  production  of  small  pic- 
tures ; they  created  a new  style  of  metal  work.  Basins,  ewers, 
cups,  plates,  vases,  and  utensils  of  every  kind,  formed  of  thin 
sheets  of  copper,  and  most  elegant  in  design,  were  overlaid  with 
their  rich  and  brilliant  paintings.  This  cup  is  of  agate,  supported 
on  a silver  stem  with  enamelled  clusters  of  grapes.  It  is  of  French 
workmanship  of  the  present  day,  and  is  exceedingly  light  and 
graceful  in  its  form. 

In  1632,  a goldsmith  of  Chateaudun,  who  was  very  skilful  in 
the  art  of  employing  translucid  enamels,  succeeded  in  discovering 
a set  of  vitrifiable  colors,  which,  when  laid  upon  a thin  ground  of 
monochromatic  enamel,  to  which  a plate  of  gold  served  as  excip- 
ient, vitrified  in  the  fire  without  any  change  in  their  tints.  In 
the  use  of  these  opaque  colors,  it  was  no  longer  needful  for  the 
production  of  the  shadows,  to  have  recourse  to  the  black  enamel 
paste,  employed  by  the  Limousin  enamellers.  The  opaque  colors 
of  Toutin,  the  discoverer  of  the  process,  wrere  applied  upon  the 
enamel  ground,  in  the  same  manner  that  water  colors  are  laid 
upon  vellum  or  ivory  in  miniature  painting. 

To  make  a plate  for  an  artist  to  paint  on  in  enamel,  a piece 
of  gold  or  copper,  of  the  requisite  dimensions,  and  varying  from 
one-eighteenth  to  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is  chosen. 
It  is  covered  with  pulverized  enamel  and  passed  through  the  fire, 
until  it  becomes  of  a bright  white  heat ; another  coat  of  enamel 
is  then  added,  and  the  plate  again  fired ; afterwards  a thin  layer 
of  a substance  called  flux  is  laid  upon  the  surface  of  the  enamel, 
and  the  plate  undergoes  the  action  of  heat  for  the  third  time.  It 
is  now  ready  for  the  painter  to  commence  his  picture  upon. 

Flux  partakes  of  the  nature  of  glass  and  enamel ; it  is  semi- 
transparent, and  liquefies  more  easily  in  the  furnace  than  enamel. 
When  flux  is  spread  over  a plate  it  imparts  to  it  a brilliant  sur- 
face, and  renders  it  capable  of  receiving  the  colors.  Every  color, 
during  the  process,  is  mixed  with  a small  quantity  of  flux ; thus, 
when  the  picture  is  fired,  the  flux  of  the  plate  unites  with  the  flux 


ENAMELS. 


159 


of  the  color,  and  the  coloring  pigment  is  entirely  excluded  from 
the  air,  by  being  surrounded  by  a dense  vitrified  mass.  From 
this  will  be  understood  the  indelible  nature  of  enamels. 

The  colors,  as  already  stated,  are  prepared  from  metallic  ox- 
ides. Many  metals  are  perfectly  useless  to  the  enameller,  on  ac- 
count of  the  high  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  enamel  is  subjected, 
and  his  scale  of  color  is  consequently  limited.  Modern  science 
has,  however,  done  much  to  supply  the  deficiency.  The  colors 
are  mixed  with  spike  oil  of  lavender  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
these  are  chosen  in  preference  to  linseed  oil  or  magilp  (a  com- 
pound of  oil  and  varnish),  because  the  former  volatilizes  rapidly 
under  the  effect  of  heat,  while  the  latter,  from  their  unctuous 
nature,  would  cause  the  enamel  to  blister.  Camel-hair  or  sable 
pencils  are  used  by  the  artist,  and  the  plate  undergoes  the  process 
of  firing  after  each  layer  of  color  is  spread  over  the  whole  surface. 
Sometimes  a highly  finished  drawing  requires  fifteen  or  twenty 
firings.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  paint  without  errors  of  any 
kind,  as  the  colors  cannot  be  painted  out  or  taken  oft‘,  after  they 
have  once  been  vitrified,  without  incurring  excesssive  trouble  and 
loss  of  time.  If  the  unfortunate  artist  miscalculates  the  effect  of 
the  fire  on  his  pigments,  his  only  alternative  is  to  grind  out  the 
tainted  spot  with  pounded  flint  and  an  agate  muller,  and  so  hard 
is  the  surface,  that  a whole  day  will  probably  be  occupied  in  rub- 
bing down  a square  inch. 

An  enamel  painting  of  an  extraordinary  size  was  executed  at 
Berlin  a few  years  ago.  It  is  now  in  the  castle  church  at  Witten- 
berg, and  is  four  and  a half  feet  high  by  eight  feet  long.  The 
subject  is  Christ  on  the  cross ; and  ac  his  feet  on  the  right  stands 
Luther,  holding  an  open  Bible  and  looking  up  at  the  Saviour,  and 
on  the  left  stands  Melancthon,  the  faithful  co-operator  of  the 
great  reformer. 

Enamelling  is  now  seldom  resorted  to  except  for  the  purpose 
of  adding  to  the  beauty  of  small  and  choice  articles  of  jewelry, 
watch  and  locket  cases,  porcelain  (which  style  will  be  described 
under  that  head),  and  articles  intended  for  the  toilet,  of  which 
we  give  a sample  in  the  form  of  a beautiful  little  vase  of  silver, 
ornamented  with  enamels,  and  the  work  of  M.  Rudolphi,  of 
Paris. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 

WHEX  Galvani  was  convulsing  frogs  with  his  rude  primitive 
battery,  or  when  Volta  was  presenting  to  the  French 
Academy  an  account  of  his  more  advanced  arrangements  and 
results,  there  was  but  slender  promise  of  such  magnificent  fruits 
as  are  now  seen  in  the  electrotype  process,  and  in  the  magnetic 
telegraph.  The  twilight  dawn  of  great  discoveries,  like  the  re- 
mote sources  of  mighty  rivers,  foreshadows  to  common  percep- 
tions nothing  of  the  future  greatness  which  their  full  career  is  to 
embody.  That  subtle  agency,  which  Volta  expounded,  in  imper- 
fect phrase,  before  the  French  Academy,  is  now  known  to  be  as 
wide  as  creation  in  its  workings,  and  as  intangible  as  the  spirit 
of  man  in  its  substance.  Already  have  electric  currents,  in  their 
widely-varied  functions,  been  found  to  pervade  nearly  all  of  ma- 
terial nature,  and  the  history  of  electrical  science  has  grown 
voluminous  and  absorbing  beyond  all  precedent ; though  we  are 
still  constrained  to  believe  ourselves  only  on  the  verge  of  this  ex- 
panding realm  of  fact.  Our  present  business  is  with  this  current 
as  a worker,  in  a particular  limited  field,  where  it  serves  as  a 
delicate-fingered  artist  in  metals,  or  wears  the  guise  of  a transcen- 
dental Tubal-Cain : for  such  is  the  function  of  dynamic  electricity 
in  its  electrotype  uses.  The  discussion  of  electric  metallurgy,  in 
its  wide  and  rapidly  enlarging  extent,  would  so  much  exceed  our 
limits,  that  we  must  rest  content  with  treating  the  electrotype 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


161 


proper,  or  the  process  of  reproducing  metal  plates  by  molecular 
deposition,  through  the  regulated  action  of  galvanic  currents. 

The  electrotype  renewal  of  engraved  plates  with  perfect  cor- 
rectness of  detail,  has  now  become  a process  of  as  entire  certainty 
as  any  of  the  coarser  forms  of  casting,  for  all  sizes  and  descrip- 
tions of  work  engraved  on  copper.  The  finest  touches  of  the 
graver  can  be  indefinitely  multiplied  without  any  loss  of  delicacy, 
and  in  a very  short  time.  USTo  mechanical  impediment  now  pre- 
vents the  unlimited  reproduction  of  copies  from  the  largest  and 
finest  copper-plates  ever  engraved,  and  this  at  a cost,  which,  com- 
pared with  the  usual  prices  of  such  prints,  is  absolutely  trifling. 
One  cannot  but  long  to  see  this  process  applied  to  those  elaborate 
plates,  the  prints  from  which  have  been  sold  for  prices  up  to  fifty 
dollars,  or  more,  under  the  conviction  that  only  a few  impressions 
could  be  obtained  without  re-engraving,  thus  making  the  cost  of 
a single  impression  about  equal  to  the  expense  of  making  an  elec- 
trotype copy  of  the  original  copper-plat§.  The  time  apparently 
is  near  at  hand,  when  fine  engravings  of  this  description  will  re- 
ceive so  wide  a diffusion  as  to  make  the  original  outlay  for  en- 
graving a mere  trifle,  when  distributed  among  the  great  number 
of  copies  which  a low  price  will  cause  to  be  sold.  Some  publisher 
who  is  an  art  philanthropist,-  and  sagacious  withal,  will  ere  long 
extend  the  principle  of  cheap  publication  into  this  higher  depart- 
ment of  art ; thus  making  a portfolio  of  engravings  by  the  best 
masters  a luxury  within  the  means  of  thousands,  who  are  now 
excluded  from  their  purchase  by  the  alarming  prices  of  good  line 
engravings.  The  finest  works  of  art  can  be  electrotyped  with  the 
same  ease  as  the  coarsest  map  plate ; nor  is  the  cost  of  printing 
and  paper  very  much  increased  by  the  fine  quality  of  the  subject, 
or  by  its  delicacy  of  treatment. 

The  electrotype  process  was  made  a practical  fact  by  Jacobi 
and  Spencer,  in  1838,  though  an  instance  of  electro-metallic  de- 
posit is  recorded  so  long  ago  as  1805,  which,  however,  lay  quite 
fruitless.  Its  rapid  strides  in  improvement  up  to  the  present 
time,  have  been  due  to  the  united  labors  of  many  intelligent  prac- 
titioners of  its  several  forms  of  application.  Ohm’s  law,  and 
Smee’s  laws  of  current  actions,  have  given  fundamental  principles 


162 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


for  reasoning  and  experiment,  which  have  guided  investigators  in 
their  operations,  directly  to  positive  and  excellent  results. 

But  here  we  should  pause,  before  entering  upon  a description 
of  the  electrotype  process,  and  the  manner  of  preparing  plated 
goods  for  the  market  by  its  aid,  as  now  practised,  to  dwell  for  a 
moment  on  the  old  process  of  plating,  which  has  been  rapidly 
superseded. 

The  art  of  covering  baser  metals  with  a thin  plate  of  silver, 
either  for  use  or  ornament,  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  a 
spur-maker.  Till  then,  the  more  elegant  spurs  in  common  use 
were  made  of  solid  silver,  and  from  the  flexibility  of  that  metal, 
they  were  liable  to  be  bent  into  inconvenient  forms  by  the  slight- 
est accident.  To  remedy  this  defect,  a workman  at  Birmingham 
contrived  to  make  the  branches  of  a pair  of  spurs  hollow,  and  to 
fill  that  hollow  with  a slender  rod  of  steel.  Finding  this  a great 
improvement,  and  desirous  to  add  cheapness  to  utility,  he  con- 
trived to  make  the  hollow  larger,  and  of  course  the  iron  thicker, 
till  at  last  he  so  coated  the  iron  spur  with  silver  as  to  make  it 
equally  elegant  with  those  made  wholly  of  that  metal.  The  in- 
vention was  quickly  applied  to  other  purposes. 

Little  more  than  a hundred  years  ago,  an  ingenious  mechanic, 
named  Thomas  Bolsover,  while  employed  in  Sheffield  in  repairing 
the  handle  of  a knife,  composed  partly  of  silver  and  partly  of  cop- 
per, was,  by  the  accidental  fusion  of  the  two  metals,  struck  by 
the  possibility  of  uniting  them  so  as  to  form  a cheap  substance, 
which  should  present  only  an  exterior  of  silver,  and  which  might 
therefore  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  in  which 
silver  had  before  been  wholly  employed.  He  consequently  began 
a manufacture  of  articles  made  of  copper,  plated  with  silver,  but 
confined  himself  to  buttons,  snuff-boxes,  and  other  light  and  small 
articles.  Like  many  other  inventors,  he  probably  did  not  see  the 
full  value  of  his  discovery,  and  it  was  reserved  for  another  mem- 
ber of  the  Corporation  of  Cutlers  of  Sheffield,  to  show  to  what 
other  uses  copper,  plated  with  silver,  might  be  employed,  and 
how  successfully  it  was  possible  to  imitate  the  finest  and  most 
richly  embossed  plate.  He  employed  it  in  the  manufacture  of 
waiters,  urns,  tea-pots,  candle-sticks,  and  most  of  the  old  decora- 


THE  ELECTEOTYPE  PEOCESS. 


163 


tions  of  the  sideboard,  which,  previously  to  his  time,  had  been 
made  solely  of  wrought  silver.  The  importance  of  the  discovery 
now  began  to  be  fully  understood ; various  companies  were 
formed ; the  streams  in  the  neighborhood  furnished  a powerful 
agent  for  rolling  out  the  metals  in  mills  erected  for  the  purpose, 
and  workmen  were  easily  procured  from  among  the  ingenious 
mechanics  of  Sheffield,  who,  in  a few  years,  aided  by  proper  in- 
struction, soon  equalled  in  the  elegance  of  their  designs  and  the 
splendor  of  their  ornaments  the  most  costly  articles  of  solid  silver. 

One  of  the  old  ways  of  plating  inferior  metals,  employed  by  the 
best  workmen,  was  as  follows  : The  article,  after  being  filed  and 
smoothed,  was  wrapped  all  over  with  a fillet  of  sheet  silver,  which 
was  fastened  with  small  wires,  after  which,  borax,  ground  with 
water,  was  laid  upon  the  surface  and  sprinkled  with  silver  solder  ; 
it  was  then  heated  red  hot,  so  as  to  braze  the  silver  to  the  article, 
after  which  the  surface  was  filed  smooth,  burnished,  and  otherwise 
got  up  as  silver.  A more  common  way~is  as  follows.  The  piece 
is,  in  the  first  place,  filed  all  over  the  surface,  so  as  to  be  perfectly 
clean  and  bright,  it  is  then  tinned  in  the  usual  manner,  by  dipping 
it  into  a vessel  of  melted  tin,  and  wiped  over  with  hurds,  so  that 
not  more  than  a very  slight  coating  may  remain.  A foil  of  silver, 
beaten  very  thin,  is  then  cut  of  the  size  of  the  article,  and  folded 
upon  it  as  perfectly  and  closely  as  possible.  In  the  flat  parts  it  is 
beaten  close,  with  a small  hammer,  and  covered  with  cloth,  while 
upon  the  mouldings  and  in  the  hollows,  the  foil  is  rubbed  down 
with  a sort  of  burnisher.  When  the  silver  film  has  been  properly 
closed  upon  the  article,  in  every  part,  so  as  to  adhere  to  it,  as  it 
will  do,  from  contact,  a soldering  bit,  very  similar  to  those  used 
by  tin-plate  workers,  is  passed  over  every  part  of  the  surface,  by 
which  operation  the  tin  and  silver  are  united,  and  the  pellicle  of 
precious  metal  adheres  to  the  body  of  the  article  with  consider- 
able tenacity.  To  make  the  attachment  still  more  perfect,  the 
surface  is  sprinkled  with  powdered  rosin,  and  heated,  the  article 
being  frequently  withdrawn,  and  dipped  into  the  powdered  rosin, 
in  order  to  flux  the  tin.  The  polishing  is  then  effected  by  means 
of  buffs  of  buckskin  and  rottenstone. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  preparing  the  metal  for  the 


164 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


flatting  mill.  A piece  of  copper,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a 
brick,  and  generally  about  twelve  inches  long,  three  inches  wide, 
and  one  and  a half  thick,  is  prepared,  either  by  cutting  it  from  a 
bar  of  that  substance  of  pure  copper,  or  by  casting  it  in  an  ingot 
mould,  as  an  alloy  of  about  two  pounds  of  brass  to  twelve  pounds 
of  copper.  The  mass,  in  either  case,  is  neatly  trimmed,  after 
which  it  is  well  and  exactly  tiled  on  one  side  with  a rasp,  until  it 
is  bright  and  level,  care  being  taken  not  to  allow  any  particle  of 
dirt  to  get  upon  it,  nor  even  to  touch  it  with  the  fingers  so  as  to 
tarnish  it.  "When  it  has  been  thus  cleaned,  a plate  of  silver,  a 
little  less  than  the  surface  of  the  copper,  after  being  made  per- 
fectly flat,  is  scraped  with  a tool,  until  quite  clean  on  one  side, 
particular  care  being  taken  not  to  soil  it  with  the  fingers.  This 
plate  (which  is  in  proportion  to  the  upper  in  substance,  corres- 
ponds to  the  amount  of  silver  which  the  sheet  of  metal  is  intended 
ultimately  to  bear,  which  is  always  slight,)  is  then  laid  upon  the 
piece  of  copper,  so  that  the  bright  surfaces  of  the  metals  are  in 
contact.  Over  the  silver  is  placed  a piece  of  sheet-iron,  of  the 
same  size,  brushed  over  with  whiting,  to  prevent  it  from  adhering 
to  the  mass  when  heated.  The  three  substances,  thus  arranged, 
are  well  secured  by  means  of  small  iron  binding- wires,  wrapped 
round  at  intervals  of  an  inch,  and  tightened  by  twisting  with 
pliers.  A little  borax,  ground  with  water,  is  laid  around  the  sil- 
ver, in  the  space  where  the  edge  approaches  that  of  the  copper, 
after  which  it  is  ready  for  the  fire. 

A small  reverberatory  furnace,  or  low,  fire-brick  oven,  is  used 
by  the  plater.  When  the  roof  of  the  oven  is  entirely  red  hot,  the 
prepared  metals  are  introduced,  upon  the  prongs  of  a sort  of  fire- 
fork,  and  placed  upon  the  coke  at  the  bottom.  The  door  in  front 
is  closed,  and  the  draught  increased,  until  the  mass  becomes  red 
hot ; in  a short  time  afterwards  the  edge  of  the  silver,  where  the 
borax  was  laid  on,  and  where  it  acts  as  a flux,  exhibits  a slight 
degree  of  fusion,  the  whole  of  the  superficial  pl^te  being  nearly 
in  the  same  state.  The  ingot  must  now,  by  the  introduction  of 
the  iron  fork,  above  mentioned,  be  carefully  withdrawn  and  laid 
aside  to  cool.  Upon  an  exact  attention  to  this  operation  the 
chief  success  of  the  plater  depends,  for  if  the  metal  be  not  re- 


THE  ELECTEOTYPE  PKOCESS. 


165 


moved  almost  immediately  after  the  indication  of  fusion  appears 
at  the  edge  of  the  silver,  it  will  presently  run  off  into  the  fire : 
and  if  the  removal  of  it,  on  the  other  hand,  takes  place  a little 
too  soon,  the  two  surfaces  will  he  only  partially  united,  and  the 
work,  of  course,  he  good  for  nothing.  But  when  taken  from  the 
fire  at  that  point  of  temperature  which  experience  indicates,  the 
parts  of  the  material  in  contact  are  found  to  he  in  a state  of  the 
most  perfect  incorporation,  so  that  no  subsequent  operation,  how- 
ever violent,  can  separate  them. 

Metal  thus  plated,  is  reduced  into  thin  sheets,  hy  passing  it 
between  steel  rollers,  in  the  usual  way,  taking  care  to  heat  or  an- 
neal it  in  the  intervals  of  rolling.  If  designed  for  waiters,  or 
other  articles  requiring  great  breadth,  it  is  rolled  both  ways  until 
it  is  spread  out  to  the  proper  size,  but  if  only  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, it  is  generally  left  narrow  in  proportion  to  its  length. 
When  the  ingot  is  of  about  the  size  previously  mentioned,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  copper  will  be  overspread  by  the  silver,  to 
within  a little  space  of  the  edge ; but  if  the  silver  be  very  thick 
in  proportion  to  the  copper,  it  will  be  found,  in  consequence  of  its 
greater  ductility,  to  spread  beyond  the  inferior  material. 

Die  sinking  is  the  most  important  department  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  plated  goods,  and  it  is  upon  that  the  success  and  celebrity 
of  many  works  of  this  description  depend.  It  is,  at  the  same 
time,  the  most  expensive  branch  of  the  business ; so  much  so,  in- 
deed, as  to  place  the  production  of  many  articles  beyond  the 
reach  of  ordinary  competition.  The  dies  of  the  silversmith,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  brass  stamper,  are  required  to  be  made,  for 
the  most  part,  of  steel,  and  at  the  same  time  they  must  be  exe- 
cuted in  a much  finer  manner ; as,  however,  plated  metal  is  very 
thin,  and  always  soft,  the  dies  are  rarely  hardened,  notwith- 
standing which  they  will  last  a very  long  time.  In  stamping, 
when  the  material  is  very  thin,  or  the  figure  deep,  particular  care, 
and  the  frequent  repetition  of  gentle  blows  are  required,  espe- 
cially at  the  beginning.  The  safety  of  the  article  during  stamping, 
is  likewise  greatly  increased  by  placing  it  between  two  pieces  of 
copper  of  the  same  substance,  and  which  are  repeatedly  lighted 
over  a charcoal  fire,  along  with  the  matter  being  stamped,  and 


166 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


sometimes,  when  the  plate  is  very  strong,  it  is  stamped  in  a red- 
hot  state. 

A good  deal  of  comparative  success  of  a plate  establishment, 
must  depend  upon  the  taste  and  spirit  employed  in  the  dies,  and 
as  fashions  are  constantly  fluctuating,  objects,  to  command  atten- 
tion, must  possess  as  much  originality  as  possible. 

Mouldings  are  sometimes  formed  upon  the  edges  of  vessels, 
which  are  not  merely  ornamental,  but  give  strength  and  stiffness. 
These  are  either  fashioned  by  an  instrument,  called  a swage, 
which  is  a grooved  hammer  corresponding  with  a rest  made  to  fit 
it,  and  which  gives  the  shape  to  the  edge,  after  repeated  blows, 
or  by  means  of  rollers,  which  is  a neater  and  more  expeditious  way 
of  arriving  at  the  same  end.  There  are  two  wheels,  so  placed 
that  the  groove  in  the  upper  wheel  corresponds  with  the  bead  in 
the  lower,  and  the  piece  of  metal  passing  between  these,  assumes 
the  same  figure. 

The  greatest  improvement  made  in  this  branch  of  manufac- 
ture, is  the  introduction  of  silver  edges,  beads  and  mouldings,  in- 
stead of  the  plated  ones,  which,  from  their  prominence,  had  their 
silver  surface  speedily  worn  off,  and  thus  assumed  a coppery  look. 
The  silver,  destined  to  form  the  ornamental  edgings,  is  laminated 
exceedingly  thin ; a square  inch  sometimes  not  weighing  more 
than  ten  or  twelve  grains.  This  is  too  fragile  to  bear  the  action 
of  the  opposite  steel  dies  of  the  swage.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  sunk  part  of  the  die  should  be  steel,  and  the  opposite 
side  lead,  and  this  is  the  method  generally  employed  to  form 
these  silver  ornaments.  The  inside  shell  of  this  silver  moulding 
is  filled  with  soft  solder,  and  then  it  is  bent  into  the  required 
shape,  and  soldered  to  the  article  for  which  it  is  intended. 

The  advantages  offered  to  the  plater  by  the  electro-process 
are  many,  arising  from  the  fact  of  the  articles  being  plated  after , 
instead  of  before , being  manufactured.  This  at  once  entirely 
removed  all  those  restrictions  on  taste  and  design,  under  which 
the  plater  was  forced,  by  the  nature  of  his  process,  to  labor. 

The  following  may  be  considered  some  of  the  principal  differ- 
ences existing  in  the  two  processes  of  plating — the  old  method 
and  the  electro-process : 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


167 


1.  The  electro- plater  is  not  limited  in  the  use  of  the  metal 
upon  which  he  plates.  There  is  generally  used,  as  the  basis  of 
all  electro-plated  goods,  a hard  white  metal,  which  possesses  the 
sound,  and  approaches  very  nearly  to  the  color,  of  silver.  Infe- 
rior goods  are  sometimes  made  in  brass. 

2.  The  electro-plater  is  not  restricted  to  the  use  of  soft  solder, 
which  melts  at  a low  temperature,  and  forms  a very  insufficient 
joint,  besides  preventing  any  sound  or  ring  in  the  article  so  sol- 
dered. Where  cheap  goods  are  required,  this  may  be  used  in  this 
process  as  well  as  in  the  old,  but  is  always  open  to  the  same  ob 
jection.  All  goods  of  superior  quality,  made  for  the  electro 
process,  are  soldered  with  what  is  termed  in  the  trade  hard  silver 
solder , composed  of  two  parts  of  silver  and  one  part  of  brass 
melted  together,  which  is  not  affected  by  any  ordinary  degree 
of  heat,  and  presents  a joint  as  strong  as  the  metal  itself. 

The  common  solder  of  braziers  may  also  be  used  with  advan- 
tage ; it  is  very  hard  and  durable,  and  requires  a strong  heat  to 
melt  it. 

3.  The  electro-plater,  in  producing  ornamental  articles,  is  not 
obliged  to  incur  the  expense  of  cutting  iron  dies  for  every  minute 
portion ; being  under  no  restriction,  he  models  his  patterns,  and 
by  casting  and  chasing  in  solid  metal,  produces  an  exact  copy, 
which  is  afterwards  plated  or  gilt.  Thus  any  pattern  which  can 
be  executed  in  silver  may  be  readily  made  in  plate  by  this  method. 

4.  The  junction  of  the  plating  with  the  metal  below,  by  the 
electro-process,  is  perfect,  without  the  presence  of  any  intervening 
substance ; the  forks  and  spoons  thus  made  are  not  open  to  the 
objection  of  the  old  process,  and  are  found  to  answer  all  the  pur- 
poses of  silver,  in  sound,  appearance,  and  wear ; they  are  gen- 
erally tested,  previously  to  polishing,  by  exposure  in  a furnace  at 
a red  heat. 

5.  From  the  facility  with  which  old  goods  may  be  now  re- 
stored, these  goods  bear  an  intrinsic  value ; whereas,  before  the 
introduction  of  the  electro-process,  a plated  article  worn  through 
in  any  part  was  valueless. 

Several  objections  have  been  keenly  urged  against  the  electro- 
process ; but  they  may  all  be  reduced  to  the  following : 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


16*8 


First  objection : Deposited  metal  is  crystalline,  and  therefore, 
though  it  may  impart  in  appearance  a silver  coating,  it  must  ne- 
cessarily be  full  of  minute  insterstices  between  the  crystals ; hence 
when  a metal,  such  as  copper,  is  plated,  it  is  liable  to  be  acted 
upon  by  the  atmosphere,  or  injured  by  whatever  is  brought  into 
contact  with  it. 

This  objection  was  not  without  foundation,  as  all  deposited 
metals  are  crystalline  in  texture,  but  they  do  not  necessarily  leave 
interstices;  the  objection,  however,  is  almost  entirely  removed 
by  keeping  the  article  in  motion  during  the  deposition.  By  motion 
and  proper  arrangement  of  battery,  we  have  deposited  silver  of 
as  high  specific  gravity  as  hammered  silver,  which  could  not  be 
the  case  if  it  were  porous.* 

Second  objection  : As  only  pure  silver  is  deposited,  it  must 
necessarily  be  soft,  and  consequently  liable  to  abrasion,  and  more 
rapid  wear. 

This  objection  is  also  partly  true.  Only  pure  silver  can  be 
deposited ; but  it  is  not  necessarily  soft : the  quality  of  the  de- 
posit, in  this  respect,  depends  a great  deal  upon  the  nature  of  the 
solution  and  the  battery  power.  Intensity  of  battery  gives  hard- 
ness to  the  metal  deposited.  There  is  no  complaint  more  com- 
mon amongst  the  burnishers  of  electro-plated  articles,  than  that 
the  metal  is  hard ; and  it  is  far  from  being  an  uncommon  occur- 
rence, that  some  goods  have  to  be  heated,  so  that  they  may  be 
more  easily  burnished  or  polished.  How  far  this  annealing  may 
affect  the  wear  of  the  goods  is  not  yet  ascertained.  That  the 
silver  is  pure,  Mr.  Napier  thinks  is  an  advantage — hence  the 
superior  color  which  electro- plated  goods  possess ; besides  which, 
purchasers  are  not  subject  to  the  risk  of  having  a plate  much 
alloyed. 

Third  objection : The  mounts  or  prominences  of  articles, 
which  must  have  the  greatest  wear,  have  the  least  and  thinnest 
deposit. 

This  objection  is  entirely  without  foundation,  as  the  promi- 

* James  Napier,  F.  C.  S.,  to  whose  work  on  Electro  Metallurgy  we  are  in- 
debted for  much  practical  information. 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


1C9 


nences  have  always  the  greatest  portion  of  deposit,  and  the  hol- 
low parts  the  least. 

And  here,  before  entering  upon  the  details  of  the  electro-pro- 
cess, let  us  introduce  a description  of  the  mode  of  copying  en- 
graved plates  in  the  Coast  Survey  Office,  by  Mr.  G.  Mathiot, 
who  has  there  devised  many  of  the  processes  and  appliances  so 
successfully  employed,  and  which  will  at  once  give  the  reader  an 
idea  of  the  battery  and  its  use  for  the  purpose  of  producing  fac- 
similes of  engraved  plates,  busts,  medallions,  statues,  or  other 
objects,  of  which  it  is  often  desirable  to  have  perfect  copies,  at 
a cost  considerably  less  than  that  attending  the  production  of  the 
original. 

In  the  Coast  Survey  Office  there  are  three  plates,  forty-two 
inches  by  thirty-eight  in  size,  containing  work  of  the  finest  qual- 
ity, and  which  attract  the  attention  of  visitors.  These  are  respec- 
tively an  original  plate,  an  alto  or  relief-lined  plate,  and  a basso, 
or  duplicate,  so  like  the  original  as  not  to  be  easily  distinguished, 
except  by  examining  the  back.  This  original,  on  being  com- 
pleted by  the  engravers,  was  carefully  cleaned,  and  its  surface 
silvered.  It  was  then  washed  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  iodine, 
and  exposed  to  the  action  of  light ; this  process,  one  of  Mr.  Ma- 
thiot’s  invention,  is,  beyond  question,  far  the  best  means  in  use 
for  preventing  a final  adhesion  of  the  deposit  to  the  matrix  plate. 
The  plate  thus  prepared,  was  suspended  vertically  in  a vat,  con- 
taining a solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  a raw  copper-plate, 
of  rather  large  size,  suspended  parallel  to  it.  These  plates  were 
then  made  to  serve  as  electrodes,  by  being  connected  with  a 
powerful  battery.  The  copper  in  the  solution  of  sulphate,  which 
adjoins  the  engraved  face,  was  thus  deposited  by  decomposition, 
being  thrown  down  as  a pure  copper  layer  on  the  face,  while  the 
free  acid  acted  on  the  raw  copper-plate,  and  thus  sustained  the 
strength  of  the  solution ; the  whole  action  amounting  to  a trans- 
fer, or  carrying  by  water,  of  the  copper  from  the  rough  plate  to 
the  engraved  surface.  When  the  deposition  had  progressed  far 
enough  to  form  a good  surface-layer,  the  plate  was  shifted  into  a 
horizontal  a at  of  the  same  solution,  and  the  raw  copper-plate  sup- 
ported on  a frame  just  above  it.  A specially  contrived  furnace 


170 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


sustains  in  this  solution  a heat  of  about  180  degrees,  which 
greatly  facilitates  deposition.  The  current  was  again  brought  to 
act,  and  maintained  in  steady  operation  until  the  deposit  attained 
the  thickness  requisite  for  safe  handling.  The  plate  and  deposit 
were  then  withdrawn  from  the  solution,  filed  around  their  com- 
mon edge,  and  the  two  were  then  separated  or  split  apart  through 
the  iodine  layer  which  was  introduced  on  the  original  face,  form- 
ing probably  an  iodine  atmospheric  him.  The  deposited  plate  is 
the  alto,  which  exhibits,  in  relief  and  direst,  all  the  engraved  re- 
versed lines  of  the  original.  This  alto  was  then  made  to  serve  in 
turn  as  a matrix,  on  which  a new  copper-plate,  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  thick,  was  deposited  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  in  form- 
ing the  alto.  This  plate  is  an  exact  duplicate  of  the  original,  and 
is  called  a basso,  or  an  eleotrotype  copy.  It  requires  only  a little 
smoothing  on  the  back,  and  a removal  of  any  accidental  specks 
or  imperfections,  to  be  ready  for  the  printer.  The  time  occupied 
in  the  reproduction  of  a plate,  containing  ten  square  feet,  can  be 
brought  within  a week  for  forming  both  alto  and  basso,  though 
economy  of  working  usually  makes  it  preferable  to  take  some- 
what more  than  this  minimum  time.  A careful  regulation  of  the 
current  under  Smee’s  laws  is  of  great  importance,  as  an  indispen- 
sable means  of  securing  the  requisite  metallic  properties  in  the 
deposit.  Planished  copper-plates  are  quite  inferior  to  good  elec- 
trotypes for  printing,  as  the  pure  metallic  copper  resulting  from 
electro-deposition  is  free  from  that  porosity  which  produces 
cloudiness  of  impression.  The  work  of  inking  and  wiping  an 
electrotype  is  considerably  less  than  for  a planished  plate,  and 
the  wear  for  each  impression  is  consequently  less.  The  first 
electrotype  copy  of  the  largest  plate  exhibited,  printed  about 
two  thousand  impressions,  without  showing  wear,  though  the 
work  is  remarkably  light  and  fine,  so  that  the  original  would 
probably  haye  failed  in  less  than  one  thousand  printings.  The 
cost  of  producing  these  large  plates  may  be  judged  from  the  rate 
of  deposit,  which  is  sometimes  as  high  as  3 lbs.  per  square  foot, 
in  twenty-four  hours.  The  consumption  of  materials  admits  of 
accurate  estimate,  but  the  cost  of  work,  apparatus,  &c.,  varies 
much  with  the  kind  and  quantity  of  work  to  be  done ; though  a 


THE  ELECTEOTYPE  PEOCESS. 


m 


dollar  per  pound  would  probably  prove  a remunerating  price  in 
regular  work,  free  from  piecing  or  inserting.  Smee  estimates  at 
a sovereign  per  pound,  but  this  rate  is  certainly  much  above 
what  the  methods  of  Mr.  Mathiot  would  require.  This  process 
of  reproduction  is  made  to  serve  as  a means  of  inserting  views, 
uniting  separately  engraved  plates,  so  as  to  shorten  the  time  of 
engraving,  and  also  to  facilitate  erasures,  by  scraping  off  from 
an  alto  the  relief- lines  to  be  erased,  and  then  obtaining  a basso, 
blank  in  those  parts.  Thus  the  scarring  and  beating  up  from  the 
back,  which  make  ordinary  copper-plate  erasing  so  troublesome, 
are  quite  avoided. 

A critical  examination  of  the  Coast  Survey  plates,  will  show 
that  they  are  as  perfect  as  copper-plates  seem  capable  of  being 
made.  A comparison  of  these  with  the  Southampton  plates,  will 
show  a marked  superiority  in  their  evenness  of  deposition,  and 
in  the  smoothness  of  their  backs.  The  Ordnance  Survey  plates 
required  to  be  laboriously  filed  all  over  their  backs,  while  the  ine- 
qualities filed  from  the  backs  of  the  Coast  Survey  plates  were 
comparatively  insignificant,  though  these  plates  quite  exceed  the 
English  in  size  and  thickness.  Indeed,  the  results  indicate  a de- 
cidedly better  management  of  the  currents  by  Mr.  Mathiot,  than 
is  displayed  in  any  other  electrotype  work  exhibited.  In  Elkin g- 
ton’s  electro-castings  there  is  a degree  of  interior  roughness, 
which,  making  all  due  allowance  for  the  irregular  forms  of  his 
subjects,  indicates  a much  less  perfect  control  of  the  deposit  than 
is  exhibited  in  the  Coast  Survey  plates.  So  far  as  we  have  the 
means  of  knowing,  these  plates  exhibit  the  electrotype  art  in  its 
highest  attained  perfection.  As  the  French  Government  is  about 
borrowing  the  Southanrpton  arrangements  for  a laboratory,  con- 
nected with  their  Depot  de  la  guerre , under  the  impression  of  its 
superiority  to  all  European  establishments  of  this  nature,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  Coast  Survey  Laboratory,  excelling  that  of 
Southampton,  as  it  clearly  does,  both  in  the  facility  and  the 
results  of  its  operations,  stands  absolutely  at  the  head  of  electro- 
type practice  in  reproducing  plates.  The  use  of  iodine 'to  pre- 
vent adhesion,  the  heating  of  the  electrolytic  solution  by  a con- 
stant furnace,  the  electro-deposited  silver  plates,  used  in  the  bat- 


172 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Fig.  1. 


teries,  and  other  minor  improvements,  wrought  out  by  Mr.  Mathi- 
ot,  are  quite  sufficient  reasons  for  this  superiority.  We  quote 
from  his  Report  (Am.  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  xv.,  2d  series,  1853, 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


173 


and  C.  Survey  Report  for  1851,  Appendix  55)  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  C.  S.  Laboratory,  apparatus  and  manipulations  : 

“ Laboratory  Apparatus. — Figure  1 is  a plan  of  the  Coast 
Survey  Electrotype  Laboratory.  The  glazed  partition,  5,  &,  5,  5, 
with  a door,  d , separates  the  battery  room  from  the  general  la- 
boratory, and  permits  an  easy  inspection  of  the  batteries,  with- 
out exposure  to  their  fumes.  The  laboratory  floor  is  about  six 
feet  above  the  ground,  and  slopes  inward  from  the  sides  towards 
the  scuttle  holes,  A,  A,  A,  A,  arranged  for  discharging  the  waste 
liquids  spilled  upon  the  floor.  To  obviate  the  deleterious  effects 
of  working  on  a floor  saturated  with  chemical  agents,  when  any 
solutions  are  spilled,  the  floor  is  well  flooded  and  brushed,  the 
water  passing  off  through  the  scuttle  holes.  There  are  four  bat- 
tery cells,  placed  as  indicated,  B,  B,  B,  B.  A rectangular  India- 
rubber  bag,  supported  by  a deep  wooden  box,  contains  the  bat- 
tery solutions.  Each  cell  can  contain  nine  silver  and  eight  zinc 
plates.  A metallic  connection  unites  all  the  zinc  plates  of  a cell, 
and  another  one  all  the  silver  plates.  Each  cell  can  be  used  as 
an  independent  battery,  or  two,  three,  or  four  cells  can  be  con- 
nected in  consecutive  or  simultaneous  order,  or  all  combined  into 
two  pairs  of  two  in  consecutive  or  simultaneous  order,  or  into 
one  group  of  three  and  one  of  one.  The  position  of  the  vertical 
decomposing  vat  is  shown  at  V,  and  that  of  the  horizontal  vat  at 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


II.  S is  a large  tub  for  washing  plates. 
The  tub  C contains  the  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  iron.  Q is  the  quicksilver  tub, 
and  W,  W,  are  fresh  water  tubs.  F is 
the  furnace,  and  d,  d,  c,  c,  are  heating  tubes  connecting  with  the 
/at  H.  T is  a flat  iron  table. 


174 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


“ Fig.  2 exhibits  a cell  and  its  included  plates,  with  their  mode 
of  suspension. 

“ Fig,  3 represents  the  suspending  frame  of  wood  and  the 
attached  plate,  P,  prepared  for  immersion  in  the  vertical  vat. 

Fug'  4‘  “ Fig.  4 shows  the 

vertical  vat  and  the 
plates  suspended  in 
it. 

“ Fig.  5 represents 
the  adjustable  plate- 
supporting frame 
used  in  the  horizontal 
vat. 

“ Fig.  6 exhibits 
the  interior  arrange- 
ment of  the  horizon- 
tal vat,  a blank  plate 
and  an  engraved  ori- 


ginal being  in  position ; also  the  connecting  copper  rods  leading 
to  the  battery. 


Fig.  5. 

□ CK 


1 

j 1 

Hill  — 1 

” 

— . _ 

“ Fig.  7 represents  the  heating 
furnace.  The  door  for  admitting 
air  is  shown  at  «,  and  is  so  con- 
nected with  an  adjusting  com- 
pound bar  of  iron  and  zinc  that 


Fig.  6. 


4 Ft.  3 in. 


by  an  adjusting  screw  it  can  be  arranged  to  regulate  the  draught, 
opening  or  closing  the  door,  thus  maintaining  a uniform  heat 
in  the  solution.  After  getting  the  fire  started,  this  door  is  set 
so  as  to  close  when  the  solution  reaches  a heat  of  180°.  In  prin- 
ciple this  furnace  is  similar  to  a bath-heater.  A tubular  helix  of 
lead  is  coiled  within  it  like  the  worm  of  a still,  and  the  termi- 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


175 


nating  branches  c and  d lead  to  the  horizontal  vat,  the  branch  c 
uniting  the  top  of  the  vat  just  below  the  liquid 
top  of  the  coil,  and  d at  the  bottom  of  the  vat 
with  the  bottom  of  the  coil.  Hence  follows  a 
circulation  of  the  solution  from  the  furnace  at 
top  and  into  it  at  bottom. 

“ Manipulation. — When  a plate  is  to  be  elec- 
trotyped,  it  is  placed  on  trestles  above  the  open 
scuttle  holes,  A,  A,  A,  A,  and  thoroughly  cleaned 
by  washing  with  alkalies  and  acids.  It  is  then 
silvered,  iodized,  and  placed  before  a window. 

A plate  of  rolled  copper  an  inch  larger  than 
the  engraved  plate  is  then  selected,  placed  on 
the  flat  iron  table,  and  beaten  with  mallets  Until 
a steel  straight  edge  shows  it  to  be  plane.  It 
is  then  weighed  and  fixed  in  the  vertical  plate-frame  by  two  cop 
per  hooks.  The  engraved  plate  is  then  similarly  fixed  in  a simi- 
lar frame,  when  both  are  placed  in  a vertical  vat  and  connected 
with  the  battery. 

“ The  process  does  not  go  on  well  when  the  plates  are  verti- 
cal, but  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  castings  in  this  position  to 
prevent  dust,  motes,  or  specks  of  impurities,  from  settling  on  the 
face.  As  the  rolled  plate  dissolves,  its  impurities  rapidly  render 
the  solution  muddy,  and  endanger  the  face  of  the  forming  plate. 
For  common  electrotypes  dust  or  mote  specks  are  not  detriment- 
al ; but  the  Coast  Survey  copper-plates  being  not  inferior  in  fine- 
ness of  lines  to  fine  steel  plates,  the  effect  of  impurities  settling 
on  the  face  of  their  copies  is  to  give  the  impressions  a clouded 
appearance.  On  first  immersing  the  plate,  the  solution  should, 
therefore,  be  perfectly  clean.  Formerly,  after  each  use  of  the 
vertical  vat,  it  was  emptied  and  washed  out.  When  the  solution 
had  deposited  its  sediment,  it  was  drawn  off  and  strained  through 
very  fine  cotton.  This  whole  operation  was  extremely  disagreea- 
ble, and  consumed  a whole  day  of  one  man. 

“ By  a simple  expedient  I have  saved  the  necessity  of  cleaning 
the  vat  oftener  than  once  a month.  To  guard  the  new  plate  from 
specks  and  impurities,  a bag  of  fine  cotton  is  drawn  over  a slight 


surface  with  the 
Fig.  7. 


176 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


wooden  frame,  which  keeps  it  distended.  An  honr  or  more  be- 
fore the  solution  is  wanted,  the  bag,  with  its  included  frame,  is 
placed  on  top  of  the  solution  and  loaded  with  the  copper  bars 
used  to  support  the  plate  frames.  The  weight  causes  the  bag  to 
sink  gradually,  filtering  the  contained  solution  as  it  goes  down; 
the  impurities  cannot  wholly  choke  the  meshes  of  the  cloth,  as  a 
fresh  portion  is  constantly  brought  into  action  during  the  sinking. 
I thus  filter  the  solution  without  taking  it  from  the  vat  or  dis- 
turbing the  sediment,  saving  much  labor,  time,  and  annoyance. 

“ The  plate  remains  in  the  vertical  vat  over  night,  and  prepa- 
rations are  made  in  the  morning  to  transfer  it  to  the  horizontal 
vat.  The  furnace  is  first  brought  into  action.  A new  plate  of 
blank  copper,  an  inch  larger  than  the  matrix,  is  flattened  on  the 
iron  table,  and  bolted  to  the  edges  of  wooden  bars  by  platinum 
bolts,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  plate  from  sagging  down- 
wards when  supported  horizontally.  The  plate  so  arranged  is 
called  the  strapped  plate.  The  coated  matrix  is  then  taken  from 
the  vertical  vat,  disengaged  from  its  frame,  and  arranged  in  the 
horizontal  frame.  A wooden  wall,  an  inch  high,  then  surrounds 
the  plate,  and  on  this  wall  the  strapped  plate  is  laid,  when  the 
whole  combination  is  placed  in  the  horizontal  vat  and  the  connec- 
tion with  the  battery  established.  The  positive  plate  is  then 
taken  from  the  vertical  vat  and  its  loss  of  weight  noted  and  re- 
corded. From  the  known  superficial  area  of  the-  matrix,  the 
quantity  of  copper  required  for  a casting  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  is  computed  and  recorded.  The  blank  copper  consumed 
in  both  vats  must  equal  this  amount  before  the  required  thick- 
ness is  reached,  allowance  being  made  for  impurities  of  rolled 
copper  and  roughness  on  the  back  of  the  electrotype.  After  a 
few  hours  of  action  the  strapped  plate  becomes  so  loaded  with 
impurities  that  they  will  begin  to  drop  on  the  electrotype ; this 
plate  must,  therefore,  be  removed  from  the  vat  and  a new  one 
immediately  supplied.  The  dirty  plate  is  then  washed  in  the 
large  water  tub,  and  when  cleaned  its  loss  of  weight  is  found  and 
recorded.  By  the  amount  of  loss  the  action  of  the  batteries  is 
tested,  and  it  is  found,  if  Sinee’s  laws  are  being  observed.  Vigi- 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


177 


lance  must  now  be  exercised  in  watching  the  batteries  and  rate 
of  work,  and  the  power  must  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances. 

“ The  entire  working  battery  generally  requires  renewal  once 
a day,  the  process  being  conducted  as  follows  : One  zinc  and  one 
silver  plate  are  taken  from  the  battery ; the  silver  placed  in  the 
solution  of  chloride  of  iron,  and  the  zinc  taken  to  the  water  tub 
outside  the  door  of  the  battery  room,  where  it  is  scrubbed 
clean  with  a hard  brush.  It  is  then  reamalagated  at  the  quick- 
silver tub,  and  taken  back  to  the  battery.  The  silver  plate  is 
transferred  from  the  chloride  of  iron  solution  to  the  adjacent 
fresh  water  tub.  Another  plate  is  then  transferred  from  the  bat- 
tery to  the  chloride  solution,  and  another  zinc  cleaned,  washed, 
and  put  back  in  the  battery  with  the  first  silver.  In  this  manner 
the  whole  battery  can  be  renewed  without  sensibly  interrupting 
its  action. 

“ When  the  loss  of  weight  from  the  rolled  copper  in  both 
vats  indicates  that  the  required  thickness  of  electrotype  is  gained, 
the  plate  is  withdrawn  from  the  battery,  detached  from  its  frame, 
its  back  smoothed,  and  its  edges  filed,  until  a separation  can  be 
made.  By  separation,  the  original  becomes  liberated,  and  the 
alto  or  reversed  relief  is  silvered  and  electrotyped  exactly  as  an 
original.  The  copy  from  it,  or  the  electrotyped  basso,  will,  if  the 
process  has  been  properly  conducted,  be  a perfect  fac-simile  of 
the  original,  and  in  hardness,  ductility,  and  elasticity,  will  equal 
the  best  rolled  and  hammered,  or  planished  copper-plate.” 

It  will  be  observed,  that  it  is  found  necessary  to  wash  the 
plate  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  iodine,  to  prevent  a final  ad- 
hesion of  the  deposit  to  the  matrix  plate : but  when  less  delicacy 
is  required,  and  there  are  no  minute  lines,  like  those  that  go  to 
make  up  an  engraved  plate,  and  which  are  in  danger  of  being 
filled  up  unless  treated  in  the  most  careful  manner  ; the  same  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  by  moistening  the  surface  with  sweet  oil, 
applied  by  a camel-hair  pencil,  and  then  cleaned  off  by  passing  a 
silk  cloth  over  it ; or,  instead  of  oil,  the  surface  may  be  brushed 
over  with  black  lead,  which  will  impart  to  it  a bronze  appearance 

It  should  also  be  remarked,  that  no  particular  form  of  appa- 
ratus is  required  for  electrotyping,  but  certain  modifications  may 
8* 


178 


AKT-M  ANUFACTURES . 


be  adopted  for  convenience  and  economy.  As  every  portion  of 
the  zinc  in  the  acid  is  capable  of  giving  electricity,  by  placing 
the  cell  that  contains  the  zinc  in  the  centre  of  the  copper  solution, 
moulds  may  be  suspended  on  each  side  of  that  cell.  The  zinc 
plates  should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  cell,  as  the  copper  will 
be  reduced  upon  it  and  the  cell  destroyed.  To  avoid  this,  the 
zinc  may  be  suspended  by  a small  wooden  peg,  put  through  it, 
and  made  to  rest  upon  the  edge  of  the  cell. 

The  directions  given  for  obtaining  a mould  from  an  engraved 
plate,  by  deposition,  are  applicable  to  taking  moulds  from  any  me- 
tallic medal,  engraving  or  figure,  that  is  not  undercut ; and  for 
depositing  within  the  moulds  so  produced.  On  the  first  discovery 
of  this  art,  the  electrotypist  was  confined  to  metallic  moulds,  as 
the  deposition  would  not  take  place  except  upon  metallic  surfaces  ; 
but  the  discovery  that  polished  plumbago,  or  black  lead,  had  a 
conducting  power  similar  to  that  of  metal,  and  that  the  deposit 
would  take  place  upon  its  surface  with  nearly  the  same  facility  as 
upon  metal,  freed  the  art  at  once  from  many  trammels,  and  en- 
abled the  operator  to  deposit  upon  any  substance — wood,  plaster- 
of-Paris,  wax,  &c.— by  brushing  over  the  surface  with  black  lead. 
The  substances  used  for  taking  moulds  from  objects  to  be  copied 
by  electrotype,  are  beeswax,  stearine,  plaster-of-Paris,  and  fusible 
metal ; recently  gutta  percha  has  been  very  successfully  used. 

If  a model  or  figure  be  composed  of  plaster-of-Paris,  a mould 
is  often  taken  in  copper  by  deposition;  the  figure  is  satu- 
rated with  wax,  and  copper  deposited  upon  its  surface  sufficiently 
thick  to  bear  handling  without  damage,  when  taken  from  the 
model.  The  figure  with  the  copper  deposit  is  carefully  sawn  in 
two,  and  then  boiled  in  water,  by  vThich  the  plaster  is  softened, 
and  easily  separated  from  the  copper,  which,  in  turn,  serves  as  a 
mould,  in  which  the  deposit  is  to  be  made.  When  the  deposit  is 
made  sufficiently  thick,  the  copper  mould  is  peeled  off,  and  the 
two  halves  of  the  figure  soldered  together. 

Busts  and  figures,  and  other  complicated  works  of  art,  which 
cannot  be  perfectly  coated  with  black  lead,  may  be  covered  with  a 
film  of  silver  or  gold,  which  serves  as  a conducting  medium  for 


05 


d, 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


179 


the  copper.  This  is  effected  by  a solution  of  phosphorus  in  sul- 
phuret  of  carbon. 

It  is  often  found  necessary  to  coat  metals  easily  acted  upon  by 
the  atmosphere,  with  those  that  are  less  sensitive,  and  will  not, 
therefore,  corrode  as  rapidly.  An  instance  of  this  is  given  at  page 
46,  in  the  form  of  an  iron  baptismal  font,  from  the  Berlin  foundry, 
and  which  is  covered  with  a thin  coat  of  copper.  To  effect  this, 
the  article  is  first  steeped  in  hot  caustic  potash  or  soda,  to  remove 
any  grease  or  oil.  Being  washed  from  that,  it  is  placed  for  a 
short  time  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  consisting  of  about  one  part  of 
acid  to  sixteen  parts  of  water,  which  removes  any  oxide  that  may 
exist.  It  is  then  washed  in  water,  and  scoured  with  sand  till  the 
surface  is  perfectly  clean,  and  finally  attached  to  the  battery,  and 
immersed  in  a cyanide  solution.  All  this  must  be  done  with 
dispatch,  so  as  to  prevent  the  iron  from  combining  with  oxygen. 
An  immersion  of  five  minutes’  duration,  in  the  cyanide  solution,  is 
sufficient  to  deposit  upon  the  iron  a film  of  copper.  But  it  is  ne 
cessary  to  the  complete  protection  of  the  iron,  that  it  should  have 
quite  a thick  coating ; and,  as  the  cyanide  process  is  expensive,  it 
is  preferable,  when  the  iron  has  received  a film  of  copper  by  the 
cyanide  solution,  to  take  it  out,  wash  it  in  water,  and  attach  it  to 
a single  cell,  or  weak  battery,  and  put  it  into  a solution  of  sul- 
phate of  copper. 

In  covering  iron  with  zinc,  the  precaution  necessary  with  cop- 
per is  not  required ; zinc  being  the  positive  metal,  acids  have  a 
stronger  affinity  for  it  than  for  iron,  and,  therefore,  an  acid  solu- 
tion may  be  used.  Zinc  may  also  be  deposited  upon  black  lead 
surfaces  in  the  same  manner  as  copper  ; but,  unless  more  than  or- 
dinary precautions  are  observed,  an  article  formed  in  this  manner 
is  so  brittle  that  it  can  hardly  be  handled  without  breaking,  from 
its  crystalline  character. 

Statues  are  frequently  cast  in  zinc.  The  castings  come  from 
the  mould  in  so  pure  and  finished  a state  that  they  require  very 
little  subsequent  chasing,  and  their  cost  is  only  about  one-sixth 
that  of  bronze,  which  they  are  made  to  resemble,  by  means  of  the 
electrotype  process. 

The  group  here  presented  is  of  this  character.  It  represents 


180 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


a shepherd  attacked  by  a leopard.  This  is  one  of  the  zinc  cast- 
ings for  which  the  foundry  of  Mr.  Geiss,  of  Berlin,  has  become 
celebrated.  The  application  of  zinc  to  monumental  statuary  was 
a discovery  of  Geiss,  and  has  been  carried  by  him  to  perfection. 
Its  entire  success  as  a rival  and  substitute  of  bronze  casting  is 
shown  in  this  group,  and  still  more  in  the  noble  work  of  Kiss — 
“ The  Amazon  ” — an  engraving  of  which  we  have  already  given 
at  page  94. 

Silver  may  be  deposited  upon  any  metal,  but  not  upon  all 
with  equal  facility.  Copper,  brass,  and  German  silver  are  the 
best  metals  to  plate ; iron,  zinc,  tin,  pewter,  and  Britannia  metal 
are  much  more  difficult ; lead  is  easier,  but  it  is  not  a good  metal, 
because  of  the  rapidity  with  which  it  tarnishes,  and  from  its  soft- 
ness easily  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  burnisher ; nevertheless, 
all  these  alloys  may  be,  and  are,  plated,  but  cannot  give  the  satis- 
faction which  brass,  copper,  or  German  silver  afford. 

This  process  is  known  as  electro-plating,  which  also  embraces 
that  of  gilding.  The  solution  of  silver  used  for  plating  consists 
of  cyanide  of  silver  dissolved  in  cyanide  of  potassium,  which  may 
be  prepared  in  various  ways.  But  the  best  and  cheapest  method 
of  making  up  the  silver  solution  is  by  the  battery,  which  saves  all 
expense  of  acids  and  the  labor  of  precipitation.  The  folio  whig 
directions  are  given  for  preparing  a solution  which  is  intended  to 
have  an  ounce  of  silver  to  the  gallon : 

Dissolve  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  ounces  of  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water ; get  one  or  two  flat 
porous  vessels,  and  place  them  in  this  solution  to  within  half  an 
inch  of  the  mouth,  and  fill  them  to  the  same  height  with  the  solu- 
tion ; in  these  porous  vessels  place  small  plates  or  sheets  of  iron 
or  copper,  and  connect  them  with  the  zinc  terminal  of  the  bat- 
tery ; in  the  large  solution  place  a sheet  or  sheets  of  silver  con- 
nected with  the  copper  terminal  of  the  battery.  This  arrange- 
ment being  made  at  night,  and  the  power  employed  being  two 
of  Wollaston’s  batteries,  of  five  pairs  of  plates,  the  zinc  seven 
inches  square,  it  will  be  found,  in  the  morning,  that  there  will  be 
dissolved  from  sixty  to  eighty  ounces  of  silver  from  the  sheets. 
The  solution  is  now  ready  for  use ; and,  by  observing  that  the 


.. 

. 

- 


EPERGNE  (ELECTROPLATED)  . p.  181. 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


181 


articles  to  be  plated  have  less  surface  than  the  silver  plate,  form- 
ing the  positive  electrode,  for  the  first  two  days,  the  solution 
will  then  have  the  proper  quantity  of  silver  in  it. 

Napier  says  the  amateur  electrotypist  may,  from  this  descrip- 
tion, make  up  a small  quantity  of  solution  for  silvering  his  medals 
or  figures ; for  example,  a half  ounce  of  silver  to  the  gallon  of  so- 
lution will  do  very  well ; a small  quantity  may  be  prepared  in 
little  more  than  an  hour. 

To  illustrate  the  process  of  electro-plating,  we  have  selected 
an  epergne.  The  design  is  a beautiful  female,  supporting  a cornu- 
copia, from  which  rises  a basket  of  intertwining  vines  and  grapes. 
The  body  is  composed  of  German  silver,  which  must  be  boiled  in 
an  alkaline  lye,  to  free  it  from  grease,  then  washed  from  the  lye, 
and  dipped  into  dilute  nitric  acid,  which  removes  any  oxide  that 
may  be  formed  upon  the  surface ; it  is  afterwards  brushed  over 
with  a hard  brush  and  sand.  The  alkaline  lye  should  be  in  a 
caustic  state,  which  is  easily  effected  by  boiling  the  carbonated 
alkali  with  slacked  lime,  until,  on  the  addition  of  a little  acid  to  a 
small  drop  of  the  solution,  no  effervescence  occurs.  The  lime  is 
then  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  liquor  is  fit  for  use.  The  lye 
should  have  about  half  a pound  of  soda-ash,  or  pearlash,  to  the 
gallon  of  water.  The  nitric  acid,  into  which  the  article  is  dipped, 
may  be  diluted  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  merely  act  upon  the 
metal.  Any  old  acid  will  do  for  this  purpose.  In  large  factories 
the  acid  used  for  dipping  before  plating  is  generally  afterwards 
employed  for  the  above  purpose  of  cleaning. 

The  article,  now  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried,  has  a copper 
wire  attached  to  it,  either  by  twisting  it  round  the  article  or  put- 
ting it  through  an  open  part  of  it,  to  maintain  it  in  suspension. 
It  is  then  dipped  into  nitric  acid  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  wash- 
ed through  water,  and  then  immersed  in  the  silver  solution,  sus- 
pending it  by  the  wire  which  crosses  the  mouth  of  the  vessel  from 
the  zinc  of  the  battery.  The  nitric  acid  generally  used  and  found 
best  for  dipping  is  of  the  specific  gravity,  1.518,  and  contains  ten 
per  cent,  sulphuric  acid.  The  article  is  instantly  coated  with 
silver,  and  ought  to  be  taken  out  after  a few  seconds,  and  well 
brushed.  On  a large  scale,  brushes  of  brass  wire  attached  to  a 


182 


ART-MANUEACTIJEES. 


lathe  are  used  for  this  purpose;  hut  a hard  hair-brush  with  a 
little  fine  sand  will  do  for  small  works.  This  brushing  is  used  in 
case  any  particles  of  foreign  matter  may  be  still  on  the  surface. 
It  is  then  replaced  in  the  solution,  and  in  the  course  of  a few 
hours  a coating  of  the  thickness  of  tissue  paper  is  deposited  on  it, 
having  the  beautiful  matted  appearance  of  dead  silver.  If  it  is 
desired  to  preserve  the  surface  in  this  condition,  the  object  must 
be  taken  out  (without  touching  it  with  the  hands)  and  immersed 
in  boiling  distilled  water  for  a few  moments.  On  being  with- 
drawn, sufficient  heat  has  been  imparted  to  the  metal  to  dry  it 
instantly.  It  must  then  be  placed  under  a glass  shade,  as  a very 
few  days’  exposure  to  the  air  tarnishes  it,  by  the  formation  of  a 
sulphuret  of  silver,  and  that  more  especially  in  a room  where 
there  is  fire  or  gas.  If  the  article  is  not  wanted  to  have  a dead 
surface,  it  is  brushed  with  a wire  brush,  and  old  ale  or  beer,  but 
the  amateur  may  use  a hard  brush  and  whiting.  It  may  be  after- 
wards burnished,  by  rubbing  the  surface  with  considerable  pres- 
sure, with  polished  steel  or  the  mineral  termed  blood  stone. 

In  depositing  silver  from  the  solution,  a weak  battery  may  be 
used ; though  when  the  battery  is  weak  the  silver  deposited  is 
soft,  but  if  used  as  strong  as  the  solution  will  allow,  say  eight  or 
nine  pairs,  the  silver  will  be  equal  in  hardness  to  rolled  or  ham- 
mered silver.  If  the  battery  is  stronger  than  the  solution  will 
stand,  or  if  the  article  is  very  small  compared  to  the  size  of  the 
plate  of  silver  forming  the  positive  electrode,  the  silver  will  be 
deposited  as  a powder.  Gas  should  never  be  seen  escaping  from 
either  pole ; the  surface  of  the  article  should  always  correspond 
as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  surface  of  the  positive  electrode, 
otherwise  the  deposit  runs  the  risk  of  not  being  good  ; it  requires 
more  care,  and  the  solution  is  apt  to  be  altered  in  strength. 

In  plating  large  articles  (such  as  those  plated  in  factories)  it  is 
not  always  sufficient  to  dip  them  in  nitric  acid,  wash  and  immerse 
them  in  the  solution,  in  order  to  effect  a perfect  adhesion  ot  the 
two  metals.  To  secure  this,  a small  portion  of  quicksilver  is  dis- 
solved in  nitric  acid,  and  a little  of  this  solution  is  added  to  water, 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  enable  it  to  give  a white  silvery  tint  to  a 
piece  of  copper  when  dipped  into  it ; the  article  then,  whether 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


183 


made  of  copper,  brass,  or  German  silver,  is,  after  being  dipped 
in  the  nitric  acid  and  washed,  dipped  into  the  nitrate  of  mercury 
solution  till  the  surface  is  white  ; it  is  then  well  washed,  by  plung- 
ing it  into  two  separate  vessels  containing  clean  water,  and  finally 
put  into  the  plating  solution.  This  secures  perfect  adhesion  of 
the  metals.  One  ounce  of  quicksilver  thus  dissolved  will  do  for 
a long  time,  though  the  liquor  is  used  every  day.  When  the 
mercury  in  this  solution  is  exhausted,  it  is  liable  to  turn  the  arti- 
cle black  upon  being  dipped  into  it ; this  must  be  avoided,  as  it 
also  causes  the  deposited  metal  to  strip  off. 

When  articles  are  taken  out  of  the  solution,  washed  and  dried, 
their  color  is  chalk- white.  They  are  generally  weighed  before 
being  scratch-brushed.  Although  this  operation  does  not  dis- 
place any  of  the  silver,  still,  in  taking  off  the  chalky  appearance, 
there  is  a slight  loss  of  weight.  The  appearance  after  scratching 
is  that  of  bright  metallic  silver.  A little  sulphuret  of  carbon 
added  to  the  plating  solution  prevents  the  chalky  appearance, 
and  gives  the  deposit  the ' appearance  of  metallic  silver.  Any 
thickness  of  silver  may  be  given  to  a plate  by  continuing  the 
operation  a proper  length  of  time.  One  ounce  and  a quarter  to 
one  ounce  and  a half  of  silver,  to  the  square  foot  of  surface,  will 
give  an  excellent  plate  about  the  thickness  of  ordinary  writing- 
paper. 

The  perfect  smoothness  which  a medal  generally  possesses  on 
the  surface,  renders  it  very  difficult  to  obtain  a coating  of  dead 
silver  upon  it,  having  the  beautiful  silky  lustre  which  character- 
izes that  kind  of  work,  except  by  giving  it  a very  thick  coating 
of  silver,  which  takes  away  the  sharpness  of  the  impression.  This 
dead  appearance  can  be  easily  obtained  by  putting  the  medal, 
previous  to  silvering,  in  a solution  of  copper,  and  depositing  upon 
it,  by  means  of  a weak  current,  a mere  blush  of  copper,  which 
gives  the  face  of  the  medal  that  beautiful  crystalline  richness  that 
deposited  copper  is  known  to  give.  The  metal  is  then  to  be 
washed  from  the  copper  solution,  and  immediately  to  be  put  into 
the  silver  solution.  A very  slight  coating  of  silver  will  suffice  to 
give  the  dead  frosty  lustre  so  much  admired,  and  in  general  so 
difficult  to  obtain. 


184 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Messrs.  Elkinton  & Co.,  of  Birmingham  and  London,  have 
been  the  most  successful  in  developing  the  electrotype  process 
and  in  bringing  it  to  its  present  high  position.  In  1840  they  took 
out  a patent  for  the  process  both  in  England  and  France.  This 
firm  now  employs  about  five  hundred  workmen  at  Birmingham, 
executing  the  designs  of  some  of  the  best  artists  of  the  day. 
About  thirty  other  English  manufacturers  are  licensed  to  use  the 
process.  And  while  we  have  new  and  beautiful  creations  of  art 
thus  placed  within  our  reach  at  comparatively  small  cost,  the 
finest  specimens  of  the  antique  and  the  choice  productions  of  the 
middle  ages  are,  by  the  same  means,  placed  before  us  with  all  the 
force  and  beauty  of  the  originals.  We  have  here  a specimen  exe- 
cuted by  Messrs.  Elkinton,  made  for  the  Queen,  from  the  original 
in  the  Hotel  de  Cluny,  by  Francois  Briot. 

We  give  only  the  stand,  which  is  designed  to  support  the 
ewer  made  by  the  same  hand,  and  which  is  decorated  in  the  same 
exquisite  manner.  These  are  in  pewter.  It  is  probable  that  the 
original,  executed  in  wax,  had  been  reproduced  in  silver  for  some 
prince  or  nobleman,  and  carved  by  Briot.  It  was  by  means  of  a 
mould  taken  from  this  prototype  that  numbers  of  pewter  casts 
were  produced,  similar  to  the  one  we  have  had  occasion  to  re- 
fer to. 

The  decorations  of  the  stand  (which  we  give  on  a small  scale) 
are  more  remarkable  than  those  of  the  ewer,  the  artist  having 
lavished  on  it  all  the  resources  of  his  art,  and  all  the  riches  of  his 
imagination. 

The  predominant  idea  represented  here  is,  that  temperance  is 
necessary  to  the  man  who  wishes  to  excel  in  the  arts  and  sciences ; 
the  figure  of  this  virtue  is,  therefore,  represented  in  the  centre 
of  the  stand,  on  that  part  which  the  artistic  world  dignifies  by 
the  name  of  umbilic , and  which  is  intended  to  receive  the  foot  of 
the  ewer. 

We  read  the  word  u Temperantia  ” round  the  principal  sub- 
ject, which  consists  of  a woman  seated  in  the  midst  of  a pleasant 
landscape,  holding  a ewer  in  one  hand  and  a goblet  in  the  other ; 
the  accessories  which  surround  it,  are  all  ingenious  allegories, 
and  all  of  which  allude  to  the  benefits  derived  from  water ; they 


p.  184, 


• 

, 


#» 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


185 


are  the  sickle,  the  symbol  of  harvest;  the  trident  of  Neptune; 
the  caduceus  of  Peace ; and  the  torch  of  Love  broken  by  Tem- 
perance. Around  the  umbilic  are  the  four  elements  in  elegant 
cartouches,  separated  by  caryatides.  Air  is  represented  by  Mer- 
cury ; water,  by  the  nynq;>h  of  a river ; the  earth,  by  a beautiful 
woman  in  a recumbent  position,  and  holding  ears  of  corn  in  her 
hand ; and  fire  by  Mars,  seated  and  holding  thunderbolts  in  one 
hand,  and  a sword  in  the  other.  The  rim  of  the  stand  is  occu- 
pied by  eight  cartouches,  separated  by  fanciful  devices,  mingled 
with  allegories. 

Silver  may  be  deposited  from  its  cyanide  solution  upon  wax 
moulds  polished  with  black  lead,  almost  as  easily  as  copper,  but 
for  this  purpose  it  is  better  to  have  the  solution  much  stronger 
than  for  plating.  Eight  ounces  of  silver  to  the  gallon  of  solution 
make  a very  good  strength.  Nevertheless,  no  articles  are  made 
in  silver  by  depositing  upon  wax  in  this  manner.  Strong  solu- 
tions of  cyanide  of  potassium  and  silver  act  upon  wax,  and  would 
soon  destroy  a mould.  The  method  of  making  articles  in  solid 
silver  by  the  electro-process  is  as  follows : A copper  mould  is 
made  by  the  electrotype,  and  the  silver  is  deposited  within  this 
mould  to  the  proper  thickness ; after  which  it  is  kept  in  a hot  so- 
lution of  crocus  and  muriatic  acid,  or  boiled  in  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  dissolves  the  copper  without  injuring  the  silver. 

Copper  moulds  intended  for  receiving  a deposit  must  be  pro- 
tected on  the  back ; but  if  the  solution  is  very  strong,  there  is 
every  danger  that  it  will  decompose  the  protecting  substance, 
thus  rendering  the  solution  very  dirty,  and  causing  a sediment. 
For  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  moulds,  various  suggestions  and 
experiments  have  been  made;  amongst  other  substances,  pitch 
has  been  tried ; it  is  easily  effected  alone,  but  on  boiling  a little 
of  it  in  potash,  a heavy  and  dirty  sediment  is  left,  destitute  of  any 
adhesive  property ; on  putting  a quantity  of  this  sediment  into  a 
pot  nearly  filled  with  melted  pitch,  a violent  effervescence  will 
take  place,  setting  free  a volume  of  white  fumes  having  a creoso- 
tic  smell.  After  all  effervescence  has  ceased,  which  will  not  be 
before  a considerable  time,  and  when  all  the  mass  seems  to  have 
been  acted  upon,  the  process  of  making  an  excellent  protecting 


186 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


coating  is  complete — a coating  which  will  not  yield  in  the  solu- 
tion, and  which  is  at  once  good  and  cheap,  its  only  fault  being  its 
brittleness. 

The  illustration  here  given,  of  electrotyping  in  solid  silver — 
the  Iliad  Salver,  representing  the  prayer  of  Thetis  to  Jupiter, 
with  scenes  from  Homer  in  the  border — was  executed  at  Birming- 
ham, by  Messrs.  Elkinton  & Co.  “Thetis  supplicating  Jupiter 
to  render  the  Greeks  sensible  of  the  wrongs  done  to  Achilles,” 
occupies  the  centre  compartment ; the  four  angular  compartments 
exhibiting  her  attendant  nymphs.  The  subjects  in  the  two  small 
circular  panels,  are,  “ Thetis  consoling  Achilles,”  and  u Thetis 
bringing  to  Achilles  the  armor  made  by  Vulcan.”  Of  the  bas- 
reliefs  in  the  border,  there  are  eight;  the  subjects  of  them  are, 
“The  contest  between  Agamemnon  and  Achilles ;”  “The  Heralds 
conducting  Briseis  from  the  tent  of  Achilles ;”  “ The  Greeks 
driven  beyond  their  fortifications ;”  “ Menelaus  and  Meriones,  as- 
sisted by  the  Ajaxes,  bearing  off  the  body  of  Patroclus  to  the 
ships  ;”  “Achilles  driving  the  Trojans  from  the  intrenchments,  by 
showing  himself  on  the  walls ;”  ‘ • The  grief  of  Achilles  over  the 
body  of  Patroclus;”  “Achilles  dragging  the  body  of  Hector 
round  the  walls  of  Troy ;”  “ Priam  soliciting  from  Achilles  the 
body  of  his  son,  Hector.”  These  sculptured  pictures — for  such 
they  are — show  consummate  skill  in  drawing.  Although  many 
of  them  contain  numerous  figures,  each  is  perfected  with  rare 
skill,  and  will  bear  the  test  of  the  minutest  scrutiny,  as  regards 
either  composition  or  manipulation. 

In  the  manufacture  of  silver  articles,  the  electro-process  has 
not  yet  been  of  extensive  application,  and  in  making  duplicates 
of  rare  objects  of  art,  and  costly  chased  or  engraved  articles  in 
silver,  one  prevailing,  and,  as  yet,  insurmountable  objection  has 
been  felt,  namely,  they  have  no  “ ring,”  and  seem,  when  laid  sud- 
denly upon  a table,  to  be  cracked  or  unsound,  or  like  so  much 
lead  ; this  disadvantage  is,  no  doubt,  partly  owing  to  the  crystal- 
line character  of  the  silver,  and  partly  to  the  pure  character  of 
the  silver,  in  which  state  it  has  not  a sound  like  standard  or  al- 
loyed silver.  That  this  latter  cause  is  the  principal  one,  appears 
from  the  fact,  that  a piece  of  silver  thus  deposited  is  not  much 


ILIAD  SALVER,  ELEOTKOTYPED.  p.  180 


■ 

■ 

' 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


187 


improved  in  sound  by  being  heated  or  hammered,  which  would 
destroy  all  crystallization.  Articles  made  in  gold  by  the  electro- 
process, have  the  same  peculiarity ; but  these  objections  have  but 
little  weight  where  articles  are  designed  for  ornaments. 

The  operation  of  gilding,  or  covering  other  metals  with  a 
coating  of  gold,  is  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  operation 
of  plating,  with  the  exception  of  a few  practical  modifications. 
The  old  process,  which  we  will  here  describe,  is  most  pernicious 
and  destructive  to  human  life ; the  mercury,  volatilized  by  the 
heat,  insinuates  itself  into  the  bodies  of  the  workmen,  notwith- 
standing the  greatest  care ; and  those  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to 
escape,  for  a time,  absolute  disease,  are  constantly  liable  to  saliva- 
tion from  its  effects.  Paralysis  is  common  among  them,  and 
the  average  of  their  lives  is  very  short — not  exceeding  thirty-five 
years,  according  to  estimate. 

The  art  of  gilding  consists  in  covering  other  bodies  with  a thin 
coat  of  gold,  which  may  be  done  either  by  mechanical  or  chemical 
means.  The  mechanical  mode  is  the  application  of  gold  leaf  or 
gold  powder  to  various  surfaces,  and  by  different  means ; chemi- 
cal gilding,  to  which  we  here  confine  our  attention,  is  the  applica- 
tion of  gold,  by  chemical  affinity,  to  metallic  surfaces.  We  have 
already  given  many  illustrations  of  bronze  gilt,  and  the  following 
is  the  process  of  applying  the  gold,  known  as  wash  gilding. 

After  weighing  the  fine  gold,  the  workman  puts  it  in  a cruci- 
ble, and  as  soon  as  this  becomes  faintly  red,  he  pours  in  the  requi- 
site quantity  of  mercury ; which  is  about  eight  to  one  of  gold. 
He  stirs  up  this  mixture  with  an  iron  rod,  bent  hookwise  at  the 
end,  leaving  the  crucible  on  the  fire  till  he  perceives  that  all  the  gold 
is  dissolved.  He  then  pours  the  amalgam  into  a small  earthen 
dish  containing  water,  washes  it  with  care,  and  squeezes  out  with 
his  fingers  all  the  running  mercury  that  he  can.  The  amalgam 
that  now  remains  on  the  sloping  sides  of  the  vessel,  is  so  pasty  as 
to  preserve  the  impression  of  the  fingers.  When  this  is  squeezed 
in  a chamois-leather  bag,  it  gives  up  much  more  mercury,  and  re- 
mains an  amalgam,  consisting  of  about  thirty-three  of  mercury, 
and  fifty-seven  of  gold,  in  one  hundred  parts.  The  mercury 
which  passes  through  the  bag,  under  the  pressure  of  the  fingers, 


188 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


holds  a good  deal  of  gold  in  solution,  and  is  employed  in  making 
fresh  amalgam. 

The  amalgam  of  gold  is  applied  to  brass,  through  the  inter- 
vention of  pure  nitric  acid,  holding  in  solution  a little  mercury. 
On  the  application  of  a gentle  heat  the  mercury  dissolves,  with 
the  disengagement  of  fumes  of  nitrous  gas,  which  mTist  be  allowed 
to  escape  into  the  chimney. 

The  workman  anneals  the  piece  of  bronze,  after  it  has  come 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  turner  and  engraver.  He  sets  it  among: 
burning  charcoal  or  peat,  covering  it  quite  up,  so  that  it  may  be 
oxidized  as  little  as  possible,  and  taking  care  that  the  thin  parts 
of  the  piece  do  not  become  hotter  than  the  thicker.  The  opera- 
tion is  done  in  a dark  room,  and  when  he  sees  the  piece  of  a 
cherry-red  color,  he  removes  the  fuel  from  about  it,  lifts  it  out 
wTith  long  tongs,  and  sets  it  to  cool  slowly  in  the  air. 

The  object  of  this  process  is  to  clear  the  surface  from  the  coat 
of  oxide,  which  may  have  formed  upon  it.  The  piece  is  plunged 
into  a bucket  filled  with  extremely  dilute  sulphuric  acid ; it  is  left 
there  long  enough  to  allow  the  coat  of  oxide  to  be  dissolved,  or 
at  least  loosened ; and  it  is  then  rubbed  with  a hard  brush. 
When  the  piece  becomes  perfectly  bright,  it  is  washed  and  dried. 

The  gilder’s  scratch-brush,  or  pencil,  made  with  fine  brass 
wire,  is  to  be  dipped  into  the  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and 
is  then  to  be  drawn  over  a lump  of  gold  amalgam,  laid  on  the 
sloping  side  of  an  earthen  vessel,  after  which  it  is  to  be  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  brass.  This  process  is  to  be  repeated,  dipping 
the  brush  into  the  solution,  and  drawing  it  over  the  amalgam,  till 
the  whole  surface  to  be  gilded  is  coated  with  its  just  proportion 
of  gold.  The  piece  is  then  washed  in  water,  dried,  and  put  to 
the  fire,  to  volatilize  the  mercury.  If  one  coat  of  gilding  be  in- 
sufficient, the  piece  is  washed  over  anew  with  amalgam,  and  the 
operation  re-commenced  till  the  work  prove  satisfactory. 

Whenever  the  piece  is  well  coated  with  amalgam,  the  gilder 
exposes  it  to  a glowing  heat,  turning  it  about,  and  heating  it  by 
degrees  to  the  proper  point ; he  then  withdraws  it  from  the  fire, 
lifts  it  with  long  pincers,  and  seizing  it  in  his  left  hand,  protected 
by  a stuffed  glove,  he  turns  it  over  m every  direction,  rubbing  and 


* 


THE  ELECTEOTYPE  PEOCESS. 


189 


striking  it  all  the  while  with  a long-haired  brush,  in  order  to 
equalize  the  amalgam.  He  now  restores  the  piece  to  the  fire,  and 
treats  it  in  the  same  way,  till  the  mercury  be  entirely  volatilized, 
which  he  recognizes  by  the  hissing  sound  of  a drop  of  water  let 
fall  upon  it.  During  this  time  he  repairs  the  defective  spots, 
taking  care  to  volatilize  the  mercury  very  slowly.  The  piece, 
when  thoroughly  coated  with  gold,  is  washed  and  scrubbed  well 
in  water  acidulated  with  vinegar. 

If  the  piece  is  to  have  some  parts  dead,  and  others  burnished, 
the  latter  are  to  be  covered  with  a mixture  of  Spanish  white, 
bruised  sugar  candy,  and  gum  dissolved  in  water.  When  the 
gilder  has  protected  the  burnished  points,  he  dries  the  piece,  and 
carries  the  heat  high  enough  to  expel  the  little  mercury  which 
might  still  remain  on  it.  He  then  plunges  it,  while  still  a little 
hot,  in  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  washes  it,  dries  it, 
and  gives  it  the  burnish.  This  is  done  by  rubbing  the  piece  with 
burnishers  of  hematite  (blood  stone).  The  workman  dips  his 
burnisher  in  water  sharpened  with  vinegar,  and  rubs  the  piece 
always  in  the  same  direction,  backwards  and  forwards,  till  it  ex- 
hibits a fine  polish,  and  a complete  metallic  lustre.  He  then 
washes  it  in  cold  water,  dries  it  with  a fine  linen  cloth,  and  con- 
cludes the  operation  by  drying  it  slowly  on  a grating  placed  above 
a chafing-dish  of  burning  charcoal. 

The  illustration  that  we  give,  is  an  object  worthy  of  great 
praise,  for  the  beauty  and  perfection  of  its  workmanship.  It  is  a 
table,  the  top  of  which  is  a circular  plate  of  porcelain,  (which  we 
shall  introduce  elsewhere,)  exquisitely  painted,  and  set  in  a gilt 
border.  This  is  supported  by  three  curved  and  foliated  gilt  stems, 
which  rise  from  a metallic  triangular  base,  and  at  the  point  of 
greatest  contraction  they  sustain  a globe  of  rich,  blue  porcelain, 
set  with  gilt  stars. 

For  cold  gilding,  sixty  grains  of  fine  gold  and  twelve  of  rose 
copper  are  to  be  dissolved  in  two  ounces  of  aqua  regia.  When 
the  solution  is  completed,  it  is  to  be  dropped  on  clean  linen  rags, 
of  such  bulk  as  to  absorb  the  liquid.  They  are  then  dried,  and 
burned  into  ashes.  These  ashes  contain  the  gold  in  powder. 
When  a piece  is  to  be  gilded,  atter  subjecting  it  to  the  necessary 


190 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


operations  of  softening  or  annealing,  and  brightening,  it  is  rubbed 
with  a moistened  cork,  dipped  in  the  above  powder,  till  the  sur- 
face seems  to  be  sufficiently  gilded.  Large  works  are  thereafter 
burnished  with  pieces  of  hematite,  and  small  ones  with  steel  bur- 
nishers, along  with  soap  water. 

In  gilding  small  articles,  as  buttons,  with  amalgam,  a portion 
of  this  is  taken,  equivalent  to  the  work  to  be  done,  and  some  ni- 
trate of  mercury  solution  is  added  to  it  in  a wooden  trough  ; the 
whole  articles  are  now  put  in,  and  well  worked  about  with  a hard 
brush,  till  their  surfaces  are  equally  coated.  They  are  then 
washed,  dried,  and  put  together  into  an  iron  frying-pan,  and 
heated  till  the  mercury  begins  to  fly  off,  when  they  are  turned 
out  into  a cap,  in  which  they  are  tossed  and  well  stirred  about 
with  a painter’s  brush.  The  operation  must  be  repeated  several 
times  for  a strong  gilding.  The  surfaces  are  finally  brightened 
by  brushing  them  along  with  small  beer  or  ale  grounds. 

Gilding,  by  the  electro-process,  is  generally  performed  upon 
silver  articles,  and  the  method  of  proceeding  is  as  follows.  When 
the  articles  are  cleaned,  after  the  manner  already  described  for 
plating,  they  are  weighed,  and  well  scratched  with  wire  brushes, 
which  cleanse  away  any  tarnish  from  the  surface,  and  prevents  the 
formation  of  air-bubbles  : they  are  then  kept  in  clean  water  until 
it  is  convenient  to  immerse  them  in  the  gold  solution.  One  im- 
mersion is  then  given,  which  merely  imparts  a blush  of  gold; 
they  are  taken  out  and  again  brushed  ; they  are  then  put  back  in- 
to the  solution,  and  kept  there  for  three  or  four  minutes,  which 
will  be  sufficient,  if  the  solution  and  battery  are  in  good  condition  ; 
but  the  length  of  time  necessarily  depends  on  these  two  condi- 
tions. 

The  gilding  solution  generally  contains  from  one  half  to  an 
ounce  of  gold  in  the  gallon,  but  for  covering  small  articles,  such 
as  medals,  for  tinging  daguerreotypes,  gilding  rings,  thimbles,  &c., 
a weaker  solution  will  do.  The  solution  should  be  sufficient  in 
quantity  to  gild  the  articles  at  once,  so  that  it  should  not  have  to 
be  done  bit  by  bit ; for  when  there  is  a part  in  the  solution  and  a 
part  out,  there  will  generally  be  a line  mark  at  the  point  touching 
the  surface  of  the  solution.  The  rapidity  with  which  metals  are 


■ ' 


* 

SILVER  GILT  COFFEE  POT 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


191 


acted  upon  at  the  surface-line  of  the  solution,  is  remarkable.  If 
the  positive  electrode  be  not  wholly  immersed  in  the  solution,  it 
will,  in  a short  time,  be  cut  through  at  the  edge  of  the  water,  as 
if  cut  by  a knife.  This  is  also  the  case  in  silver,  copper,  and  other 
solutions. 

The  best  method  of  preparing  the  gold  solution,  is  that  de- 
scribed for  silver.  For  all  the  operations  of  gilding  by  the  cyan- 
ide solution,  it  must  be  heated  to  at  least  130°  Fah.  After  the 
articles  are  cleaned  and  dried,  they  are  weighed,  and,  when  gilt, 
they  are  weighed  again ; thus  the  quantity  of  gold  deposited  is 
ascertained.  Any  convenient  means  may  be  adopted  for  heating 
the  solution.  The  one  generally  employed,  is  to  put  a stoneware- 
pan,  containing  the  solution,  into  a vessel  of  water,  which  is  kept 
at  the  boiling  point.  The  hotter  the  solution,  the  less  battery 
power  is  required ; generally  three  or  four  pairs  of  plates  are 
used  for  gilding,  and  the  solution  is  kept  at  130°  to  150°  Fah.; 
but  one  pair  will  answer  if  the  solution  be  heated  to  200°. 

As  the  gold  solution  evaporates,  by  being  hot,  distilled  water 
must,  from  time  to  time,  be  added ; the  water  should  always  be 
added  when  the  operation  of  gilding  is  over,  not  when  it  is  about 
to  be  commenced,  or  the  solution  will  not  give  so  satisfactory  a 
result.  When  the  gilding  operation  is  continued  successively  for 
several  days,  the  water  should  be  added  at  night. 

The  gold  upon  the  gilt  article,  on  coming  out  of  the  solution, 
should  be  of  a dark  yellow  color,  approaching  to  brown,  but  this, 
when  scratched,  will  yield  a beautiful,  rich,  deep  gold.  If  the 
color  is  blackish,  it  ought  not  to  be  finished,  for  it  will  never 
either  brush  or  burnish  a good  color.  If  the  battery  is  too  strong, 
and  gas  is  given  off  from  the  article,  the  color  will  be  black ; if 
the  solution  is  too  cold,  or  the  battery  rather  weak,  the  gold  will 
be  light  colored,  so  that  every  variety  of  shade  may  be  imparted. 
A A ery  rich  dead-gilt  may  be  made  by  adding  ammoniuret  of 
gold  to  the  solution,  just  as  the  articles  are  being  put  in. 

According  to  the  amount  of  gold  deposited  so  will  be  its 
durability : a few  grains  will  serve  to  give  a gold  color  to  a very 
large  surface,  but  it  will  not  last ; this  proves,  however,  that  the 
process  may  be  used  for  the  most  inferior  quality  of  gilding. 


192 


ART-MANUFACTURES . 


Gold  thinly  laid  upon  silver  will  be  of  a light  color,  because  of 
the  property  of  gold  to  transmit  light.  The  solution  for  gilding 
silver  should  be  made  very  hot,  but  for  copper  it  should  be  made 
at  the  minimum  heat.  A mere  blush  may  be  sufficient  for  articles 
not  subjected  to  wear,  but  on  watch-cases,  pencil-cases,  chains, 
and  the  like,  a good  coating  should  be  given.  An  ordinary-sized 
watch-case  should  have  from  twenty  grains  to  a pennyweight ; a 
mere  coloring  will  be  sufficient  for  the  inside,  but  the  outside 
should  have  as  much  as  possible.  A watch-case,  thus  gilt,  for 
ordinary  wear,  will  last  five  or  six  years  without  becoming  base. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  danger  attending  gilding  by 
the  old  method  of  employing  an  amalgam  of  gold  and  mercury ; 
but  that  of  electro-gilding,  if  not  so  fatal  in  its  effects,  is  also  de- 
structive of  health.  Mr.  Napier  says  the  hands  of  those  engaged 
in  gilding  or  plating  are  subjected  to  ulceration,  particularly  if 
they  have  been  immersed  in  the  solution.  The  ulcers  are  not 
only  annoying  but  painful,  and,  on  their  first  appearance,  if  care 
is  not  properly  taken  to  wash  them  in  strong  cyanide  of  potassi- 
um, and  then  in  acid  water,  the  operator  wall,  in  a short  time, 
have  to  take  a few  days’  rest.  He  thus  gives  his  own  experience, 
and  that  of  his  companions,  while  employed  in  electro-plating  and 
gilding,  in  apartments  that  were  improperly  ventilated. 

“The  gas  has  a sickening  smell,  and  gives  to  the  mouth  a 
saline  taste,  and  scarcity  of  saliva ; the  saliva  secreted  is  frothy. 
The  nose  becomes  dry  and  itchy,  and  small  pimples  are  formed 
within  the  nostrils,  which  are  very  painful.  Then  follows  a gene- 
ral languor  of  the  body,  disinclination  to  take  food,  and  a want 
of  relish.  After  being  in  this  state  for  some  time,  there  follows 
a benumbing  sensation  in  the  head,  with  pains,  not  acute,  shoot- 
ing along  the  brow;  the  head  feels  a heavy  mass,  without  any 
individuality  in  its  operations.  Then  there  is  bleeding  at  the 
nose  in  the  morning  when  newly  out  of  bed ; after  that  comes 
giddiness:  objects  are  seen  flitting  before  the  eyes,  and  momen- 
tary feelings  as  of  the  earth  lifting  up,  and  then  leaving  the  feet, 
so  as  to  cause  a stagger.  This  is  accompanied  with  feelings  of 
terror,  gloomy  apprehensions,  and  irritability  of  temper.  Then 
follows  a rushing  of  blood  to  the  head ; the  rush  is  felt  behind 


silver  gilt  castor. 


44 


THE  ELECTROTYPE  PROCESS. 


193 


the  ears  with  a kind  of  hissing  noise,  causing  severe  pain  and 
blindness  ; this  passes  off  in  a few  seconds,  leaving  a giddiness 
which  lasts  for  several  minutes.”  In  his  own  case,  he  says : “The 
rushing  of  blood  was  without  pain,  but  attended  with  instant 
blindness,  and  then  followed  with  giddiness.  For  months  after- 
wards a dimness  remained,  as  if  a mist  intervened  between  us 
and  the  object  looked  at ; it  was  always  worse  towards  evening, 
when  we  grew  very  languid  and  inclined  to  sleep.  We  rose  com- 
paratively well  in  the  morning ; yet  were  restless,  our  stomach 
was  acid,  visage  pale,  features  sharp,  eyes  sunk  in  the  head,  and 
round  them  dark  in  color ; these  effects  were  slowly  developed. 
Our  experience  was  nearly  three  years.” 

However  gratifying  the  progress  of  electrotype  art  has  already 
been,  there  is  evidently  much  more  to  be  accomplished  by  its 
agency  in  copying  all  varieties  of  designs  in  metals.  Electro- 
stereotyping is  already  much  in  use,  and  must  become  far  more 
common  in  this  age  of  large  editions.  The  letter-press  and  wood- 
cuts  of  a popular  magazine  are  now  printed  from  a thin  electro- 
deposited  copper  layer,  backed  with  a fused  metal  filling.  Our 
own  country,  requiring  such  immense  issues  of  popular  works, 
both  of  literature  and  of  art,  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  home 
of  the  electrotype,  and  we  feel  a well-based  confidence  that  many 
perfections  and  amplifications  will  be  given  to  this  beautiful  pro- 
cess in  the  country  which  has  most  to  gain  by  the  progress.  The 
field  of  novel  application  is  by  no  means  yet  exhausted,  but  many 
hitherto  unimagined  uses  will  doubtless  spring  up,  as  this  art  ad- 
vances to  greater  perfection  and  facility.  The  silver  gilt  castor, 
Number  44,  is  of  American  workmanship,  and  was  manufactured 
by  James  T.  Ames,  of  Chicopee,  Massachusetts.  The  ornaments 
are  tasteful  and  judiciously  arranged,  and  the  bottles  are  of  cut 
glass.  And  we  close  this  page  with  a salt-cellar,  from  the  same 
source.  It  is  silver  gilt,  and  pierced  to  show  the  rich  color  of 
the  ruby  glass  lining.  Works  of  this  description  cannot  be  too 
highly  commended,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  know  that  they  can  be 
produced  in  this  country  with  so  much  feeling  for  the  really 
beautiful. 


9 


CHAPTEE  XI. 


PORCELAIN. 

THE  manufacture  of  porcelain  is  known  to  have  been  carried  on 
in  China  at  least  since  A.  D.  442,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that 
it  dates  back  so  far  as  163  B.  C.  And  in  China  the  finest  porce- 
lain continues  to  be  made.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  Portuguese,  porcelana , “ a cup,”  while  to  the  French  it  has 
also  been  attributed,  who  erroneously  supposed  that  the  materials 
of  which  porcelain  is  composed  required  to  be  matured  under 
ground  for  one  hundred  years — “ pour  cent  annees.”  But  Scali- 
ger  held  that  it  was  made  of  sea-shells,  beaten  small  and  buried 
under  ground  for  eighty  or  one  hundred  years.  Porcelain  is  the 
name  of  this  little  white  shell-fish,  which  is  always  found  with 
sponges,  and  in  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa  the  shells  pass  current  as 
money.  The  Japanese  have  also  possessed  a knowledge  of  the 
art  of  making  porcelain  from  a very  early  date,  though  they  have 
never  equalled  the  finest  specimens  of  the  Chinese  manufacture. 

The  abundance  of  materials  suitable  for  the  production  of 
pottery  which  lie  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  facility 
for  moulding  soft  paste  into  any  form  whatever,  solely  by  means 
of  the  hand,  and  the  possibility  of  giving  it  sufficient  dryness  and 
solidity  by  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  have  caused  the  ce- 
ramic art  to  be  one  of  the  first  practised  by  mankind. 

Accordingly  we  find  it  held  in  honor  from  the  earliest  antiqui- 
ty, and  the  Greeks  struck  medals  and  erected  statues  in  honor  of 
their  ceramic  artists.  The  Etruscans,  after  the  Greeks,  made 


* 


VASE,  FROM  THE  ROYAL  PRUSSIAN  MANUFACTORY.  p.  194 


TOKCELAIN. 


195 


pottery  of  tlieir  own,  specimens  of  which  are  found  at  the  present 
day  in  different  parts  of  ancient  Etruria ; and  the  Romans  have 
left  us  several  kinds  of  pottery,  wThich  differ  from  each  other  as 
to  date,  materials,  and  principles  of  fabrication.  Almost  all  pos- 
sess some  interest  as  works  of  art,  and  they  are  found  scattered 
in  all  countries  over  which  the  Roman  Empire  extended. 

The  process  of  the  lustrous  glazing  of  the  Roman  pottery  ap- 
pears to  have  been  lost  about  the  third  century  of  our  era,  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  and  the  wars  that 
desolated  Europe  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  were  more 
fatal  to  the  ceramic  than  to  any  other  of  the  arts ; for,  excepting 
the  Greeks,  who  had  still  preserved  a degree  of  internal  tranquil- 
lity, all  nations,  to  date  from  that  period,  appear  to  have  given  up 
entirely  the  cultivation  of  the  ceramic  arts,  or  at  least  to  have 
confined  the  application  of  them  to  very  common  purposes.  The 
middle  ages,  in  fact,  have  left  us  no  artistic  pottery,  and  no  writ- 
ten document  to  lead  us  to  suppose  the  existence  of  productions 
which  time  might  have  entirely  destroyed.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
until  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  we  find  among 
the  European  nations  any  pottery  but  such  as  has  been  designed 
for  the  commonest  domestic  use,  and  none  that  art  has  been 
pleased  to  decorate. 

Spain  takes  precedence  of  Italy  in  the  manufacture  of  enam- 
elled earthenware,  and  there  is  a tradition  in  the  latter  country 
that  their  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  were  im- 
ported into  that  country  by  Arabian  or  Spanish  workmen,  from 
the  Balearic  islands. 

Pottery  overlaid  wfith  a colored  varnish  was  used  in  the  deco- 
ration of  buildings  in  the  fourteenth  century.  And  this  opaque 
varnish  continued  to  improve  until  towards  1450,  when  Luca 
della  Robbia,  after  numerous  attempts,  succeeded  in  giving  to 
his  sculpture  in  clay  the  brilliancy  and  durability  of  marble,  by 
glazing  them  with  a white  enamel,  opaque,  very  hard,  and  with- 
out cracks.  The  fame  of  these  works  spread  all  over  Europe, 
and  in  a short  time  he  found  himself  unable  to  execute  the  orders 
that  poured  in  upon  him,  and  he  therefore  invited  his  two  broth- 
ers, also  sculptors,  to  share  in  his  labors. 


196 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


It  was  about  tliis  period  that  subjects  were  first  painted  upon 
pottery.  The  outlines  of  the  figures  were  traced  in  blue  or  black ; 
the  flesh,  rendered  by  the  ground,  remained  white,  and  the  dra- 
peries were  colored.  The  drawing  is  hard  and  dry ; there  are 
no  shades  or  half-tints  in  the  painting,  and  these  early  majolica 
are  very  curious,  in  that  they  have  a metallic,  iridescent  lustre. 

The  manufacturers  of  Florence  and  Faenza  were  the  first  to 
cover  their  pottery  with  a white  enamel  glaze.  It  is  doubtless 
from  this  circumstance  that  the  name  of  fayence,  from  Faenza,  is 
now  improperly  given  to  all  the  enamelled  earthenware  of  Italian 
manufacture. 

The  beauty  of  this  newly-adopted  white  enamel  induced  the 
manufacturers  of  Florence  and  Faenza  to  produce  an  entirely 
white  earthenware,  and  when,  later,  they  followed  the  example 
of  the  potters  of  the  Duchy  of  Urbino,  and  enriched  their  fayence 
with  colored  designs  and  arabesques,  they  often  preserved  the 
white  enamel  ground  without  covering  it  with  color. 

In  the  manufacture  of  fine  majolica,*  after  lightly  baking  the 
pieces,  they  were  plunged  into  a liquid  preparation  composed  of 
oxide  of  tin,  sand  and  potash,  finely  ground  and  mixed  with  water. 
The  oxide  of  tin  was  introduced  in  larger  proportions  when  a 
thicker  and  harder  enamel  was  to  be  produced.  By  this  simple 
and  rapid  process  the  pieces  thus  prepared  were  covered  on  both 
sides  with  a vitrescent  coating,  which,  by  its  ojoacity,  entirely 
concealed  the  dirty  color  of  the  paste.  Paintings  in  vitrified 
colors  were  then  executed  upon  this  coating,  and  the  pieces 
afterwards  taken  back  to  the  furnace  to  receive  their  complete 
firing. 

The  success  was  apparent,  and  skilful  artists  began  to  devote 
themselves  to  painting  upon  earthenware ; they  were  not  satisfied 
with  decorations  consisting  merely  of  arms,  foliage,  ornaments, 
or  single  figures ; they  arrived  at  theNrepresentation  of  historical 
subjects,  and  copied  the  cartoons  furnished  for  them  by  painters, 
of  reputation.  Many  sketches  for  this  purp'ose  were  made  by 


* This  name  is  derived  from  the  island  of  Majorca,  where  the  ware  was  first 
manufactured. 


majolica.  p.  196 


PORCELAIN. 


197 


Raphael,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  belief  that  this  great  mas- 
ter painted  in  enamel  npon  majolica. 

After  1560  the  cartoons  were  no  longer  the  sole  models  of 
the  ceramic  painters,  who,  from  this  period,  began  to  work  from 
the  Flemish  engravings.  Landscapes,  as  well  as  arabesques,  be- 
came much  in  fashion,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  artists  almost 
wholly  discontinued  compositions  of  a more  elevated  style. 

The  French  pottery  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  unique  of 
its  kind.  Its  manufacture  was  not  of  gradual  growth,  but  rose 
at  once  to  a high  degree  of  perfection,  and  was  discontinued,  at 
the  end  of  a few  years,  without  its  being  known  at  the  present 
day,  by  whom  or  where  it  was  carried  on.  The  paste  used  for 
modelling  this  fayence  is  a true  pipe  clay,  fine  and  very  white, 
so  that  it  did  not  require,  like  the  Italian  fayence,  to  be  concealed 
by  a coating  or  opaque  enamel ; the  decorations  are  merely  glazed 
with  a thin  varnish,  yellowish,  but  transparent. 

The  decorations  usually  consist  of  interlaced  ornaments  taste- 
fully arranged  in  a style  resembling,  to  a certain  degree,  the 
Arabian.  These  consist  of  small  bands  of  yellow  ochre,  with  bor- 
ders of  light  brown,  or  designs  of  a carnation  red,  formed  in  the 
ground  itself  of  the  paste — resembling  the  niello  work  of  Cellini 
in  its  finish.  These  patterns  are  sometimes  disposed  in  zones  of 
yellow  ochre,  with  borders  of  dark  brown.  Other  colors  are  oc- 
casionally introduced,  but  the  dark  yellow  ochre  is  the  predom- 
inant one.  And  in  addition  to  these  elegant  decorations,  this 
beautiful  fayence  is  enriched  with  raised  ornaments  in  bold  relief, 
consisting  of  masks,  escutcheons,  lizards,  frogs,  &c.  In  all  of 
these  a pink  color  predominates.  The  form  of  the  pieces  is 
always  in  the  purest  style  of  the  Renaissance,  so  finely  modelled 
and  so  exquisite  in  execution  as  to  be  compared  with  the  chiselled 
and  damascene  work  of  the  goldsmiths  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

There  are  but  thirty-seven  pieces  of  this  ware  extant,  and 
when  these  have  changed  hands,  the  most  extravagant  prices 
have  been  paid  for  them. 

With  the  history  of  pottery  in  France,  the  name  of  Bernard 
Palissy  is  intimately  connected.  He  was  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Agen,  about  1510,  and  in  early  life  he  learned  the  art  of  glass 


198 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


painting.  In  this  capacity  he  was  called  upon  to  ornament  with 
his  pencil  some  of  the  majolica  ware  of  Italy,  and  while  thus  em- 
ployed he  conceived  the  idea  of  imitating  its  enamel,  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  a similar  ware,  moulded  after  his  own 
designs. 

It  was  a great  step  to  leave  an  employment  that  supplied  all 
his  wants,  to  undertake  that  which  offered  no  certain  reward,  and 
promised  trials  and  disappointments  without  number.  He  had 
not  the  slightest  knowledge  of  pottery,  nor  could  he  mould  and 
bake  the  most  ordinary  utensil  of  earthenware.  But  he  had  set 
his  heart  on  the  discovery  of  the  glaze  that  had  so  charmed  him, 
and  for  this  purpose  he  constructed  a simple  furnace,  ]3urchased  a 
few  earthen  pots,  which  he  broke  into  pieces,  and  on  these  placed 
the  different  compositions  he  fancied  might  possibly  produce  the 
desired  effect.  He  had  some  knowledge  of  metallic  colors,  de- 
rived from  his  calling  as  glass  painter,  and  he  was  prepared  to 
make  other  experiments  if  the  first  did  not  succeed.  He  failed, 
of  course,  and  new  compositions  were  tried,  but  with  no  better 
results.  His  ovens  or  furnaces  he  repeatedly  changed,  for  he 
knew  nothing  of  baking  clay,  and  during  all  this  time  he  was 
expending  his  means  in  a fruitless  search,  without  being  one  whit 
the  wiser  than  at  the  start.  Years  passed  on — years  of  incessant 
application  to  the  one  study,  and  years  of  domestic  troubles  that 
would  have  driven  many  a one  from  his  home.  At  his  old  trade 
he  worked  occasionally,  to  procure  means  for  the  support  of  his 
family,  and  buy  materials  for  fresh  experiments. 

At  last  Palissy  re^reiyed  a government  order  to  survey  and 
map  a region  of  salt  marshes — for  he  was  a surveyor  as  well  as  a 
painter  on  glass — which  work  occupied  him  nearly  a year,  and 
when  he  had  completed  his  task  had  a larger  sum  at  his  com- 
mand than  he  had  ever  known  before.  Thus  fortified,  he  re- 
newed his  experiments,  and  this  time  he  tried  the  furnace  of  a 
glass-house,  where  he  was  surer  of  a greater  amount  of  heat. 
Nearly  a hundred  different  compounds  were  submitted  to  the 
action  of  the  fire,  in  as  many  little  bits  of  earthen  pots,  and,  to 
his  great  delight,  some  of  the  compounds  melted.  This  was  a 
great  point,  and  he  lost  no  time  in  perfecting  his  experiments. 


PORCELAIN. 


199 


His  trade  was  now  wholly  neglected,  and  his  family  had  but  a 
sorry  time  of  it.  His  wTife  had  tormented  him  nearly  to  death  ; 
some  of  his  children  had  died,  and  the  remaining  number  were 
reduced  to  misery,  and  he  was  about  to  give  up  in  despair.  But 
he  resolved  on  one  more  trial,  which  was  to  be  extended  to  three 
hundred  compounds,  fired  in  the  glass-house.  One  of  these  com- 
pletely melted  and  formed  an  enamel  singularly  beautiful. 

But  now  that  Palissy  had  realized  his  expectations,  the  next 
thing  was  to  apply  the  secret  in  such  a wTay  that,  by  making  its 
value  known,  he  might  realize  enough  to  relieve  all  his  wants. 
With  his  own  hands  he  moulded  vessels  suitable  to  receive  the 
enamel  he  had  discovered.  Then  he  built  a furnace,  on  which  he 
worked  day  and  night,  for  he  had  no  means  to  employ  assistance. 
And  when  all  things  were  ready  he  put  into  the  furnace  his  whole 
remaining  stock  of  wood,  but  the  enamel  showed  no  signs  of 
melting,  and  all  seemed  lost.  It  was  a time  for  action ; more 
fuel  could  not  be  obtained  without  money,  and  money  he  had 
none,  so  he  tore  up  the  palings  of  his  garden  and  thrust  them 
into  the  flames ; and  when  the  fiery  furnace  demanded  yet  more, 
the  floor  of  his  dwelling  was  hurriedly  torn  up  and  consigned  to 
the  devouring  element — happily  with  success,  for  the  enamel 
melted  and  the  experiment  was  complete. 

But  how  was  the  poor  man  met  when  he  entered  his  disman- 
tled house  ? Not  with  words  of  congratulation,  we  may  be  as- 
sured, but  with  looks  that  plainly  showed  his  friends  thought  him 
insane.  It  was  true  he  had  made  the  discovery,  after  years  of 
ceaseless  toil  aud  under  the  most  trying  circumstances;  but  now 
that  he  was  in  the  possession  of  the  secret  that  had  cost  him  so 
much,  he  could  do  nothing  with  it,  for  want  of  means.  He  was 
not  a man  to  be  disheartened,  and  he  at  once  commenced  model- 
ling cups  and  vases,  which  he  adorned  with  the  most  beautiful 
representations  of  animals,  reptiles,  and  plants,  and  when  these 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  wealthy,  he  no  longer  lacked  employ- 
ment or  means. 

Palissy  was  a great  naturalist,  and  his  vases  bear  evidence  of 
his  love  of  nature.  To  the  field  he  constantly  resorted  when  de- 
signing, and  he  modelled  always  with  the  utmost  accuracy.  To 


200 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Paris  he  moved,  and  there  he  was  constantly  employed  by  the 
king  and  his  nobles.  But  he  carried  with  him,  besides  his  art, 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  which  he  adhered  to  firmly. 
And  when  the  royal  edict  made  death  the  penalty  for  exercising 
the  Reformed  faith,  Palissy,  then  seventy-six  years  of  age,  was 
thrown  into  prison,  there  to  await  the  time  when  he  should  be 
carried  to  the  stake.  Efforts  were  made  to  save  him,  but  he 
would  not  abjure  his  faith,  and  he  was  equally  firm  when  the 
king  in  person  went  to  him,  declaring  that  if  he  could  not  live  to 
enjoy  the  religion  of  his  choice,  he  would  die  in  its  defence. 
Through  the  remainder  of  his  days  he  was  confined  in  prison,  and 
died  in  1589. 

The  fayence  of  Palissy  is  characterized  by  a peculiar  style, 
and  by  several  qualities  peculiar  to  itself.  There  is  no  flat  paint- 
ing in  it,  with  shaded  colors ; its  decorations  consist  always  of 
reliefs  colored.  The  enamel  is  hard  and  very  brilliant,  but  little 
cracks  may  often  be  observed  upon  its  surface.  The  colors  em- 
ployed are  pure  yellow,  yellow  ochre,  a fine  indigo  blue,  a gray- 
ish blue,  brown,  violet,  and  yellowish  white;  for  Palissy  never 
succeeded  in  discovering  the  first  object  of  his  researches,  the 
pure  white  of  the  Italian  majolica;  or,  at  least,  he  never  was  able 
to  employ  it  in  his  work.  The  shells  with  which  he  ornamented 
his  rustic  pieces,  are  the  fossil  shells  of  the  Paris  basin ; the  fish 
are  those  of  the  Seine,  the  reptiles  and  plants  of  the  environs 
of  Paris ; nor  is  there  any  foreign  production  to  be  met  among 
them. 

An  enamelledffayenoe  in  relief,  manufactured  at  Nuremberg, 
bears  a great  resemblance  to  the  works  of  Palissy,  but  is  inferior 
both  in  style  and  material. 

The  Portuguese  are  generally  allowed  to  have  been  the  first 
to  introduce  Porcelain  into  Europe  in  1503,  but  a long  time 
elapsed  before  any  attempt  was  made  to  imitate  it.  Germany 
has  the  credit  of  successfully  establishing  a manufactory  of  this 
kind,  and  Bottcher,  who  discovered  the  art  of  making  hard  china 
in  1708,  was  the  founder  of  that  of  Meissen. 

Bottcher  was  born  on  the  4th  of  February,  1682,  at  Schlaiz, 
in  Yoigtland,  and  was  placed  at  an  early  age  with  Zorn,  an  apoth- 


PORCELAIN. 


201 


ecary  at  Berlin.  Already  initiated  by  his  father  into  the  occult 
sciences,  he  occupied  himself  in  his  master’s  laboratory  not  so 
much  with  pharmacy  as  with  works  of  alchemy.  A rumor  of 
this  spread  through  Berlin,  and  fame,  never  slow  to  exaggerate 
either  good  or  bad  reputations,  already  bestowed  upon  him  the 
title  of  a maker  of  gold.  His  experiments  in  the  transmutation 
of  metals  had  given  him,  notwithstanding  his  youth,  an  impor- 
tance in  the  eyes  of  Frederick  William  I.  Perceiving  that  the 
interest  shown  by  the  king  would  degenerate  into  persecution, 
Bottcher  secretly  quitted  Berlin  and  travelled  for  three  years  in 
Saxony.  He  did  not  yet,  however,  consider  himself  safe,  and,  in 
order  to  evade  the  pursuit  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  wished  to 
seize  him  to  force  from  him  his  secret,  he  placed  himself,  in  1701, 
under  the  protection  of  Frederick  Augustus  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
King  of  Poland,  who  allowed  him  to  settle  in  Dresden. 

The  Elector  of  Saxony,  in  granting  his  protection  to  Bottcher, 
no  doubt  reckoned  upon  profiting  on  his  own  account  by  the 
talents  of  the  maker  of  gold ; he  ordered  Tschirnhaus  to  receive 
him  into  his  laboratory  and  attentively  to  overlook  his  work. 

Tschirnhaus  was  a very  distinguished  scholar.  After  having 
travelled  almost  all  over  Europe,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1682,  and 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  whom  he  submitted  several  of  his 
scientific  works,  admitted  him  as  one  of  their  members.  On  his 
return  to  Germany  he  applied  himself  to  improvements  in  optics, 
and  established  three  glass  furnaces,  from  which  were  produced 
wonderful  novelties  in  dioptrics  and  physics,  and  particularly  a 
burning  mirror,  which  gained  him  a great  reputation.  He  was 
also  a very  good  chemist,  and  had  tried  also  to  make  porcelain ; 
but  supposing  it  was  only  a vitrification,  his  operations  were  so 
conducted  as  to  produce  no  other  result  than  a milky  glass,  which 
had  none  of  the  qualities  of  pure  glass. 

From  the  moment  that  Bottcher  was,  by  order  of  Frederick 
Augustus,  associated  with  this  learned  man,  he  became  very  un- 
easy at  his  position,  beginning  already  to  discover  the  futility  of 
his  researches,  although  entered  upon  in  all  sincerity.  But  under 
so  distinguished  a person  as  Tschirnhaus,  the  labors  of  Bottcher 
were  to  take  a more  useful  direction,  and  his  knowledge  of  chem- 
9* 


202 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


istry  could  not  fail  to  conduct  him  to  more  real  and  tangible  re- 
sults. The  earlier  labors  of  Tschirnhaus  led  Bottcher  to  occupy 
himself  with  experiments  for  the  discovery  of  porcelain ; but,  in- 
stead of  seeking  it,  like  his  inspector,  through  the  process  of  vit- 
rification, he  had  recourse  to  those  of  ceramics,  and  thus  secured 
his  success.  Tschirnhaus,  who  was  extensively  acquainted  with 
mineralogy,  and  who  had  well  studied  the  clays  of  Saxony,  had 
furnished  Bottcher  with  a red  clay,  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Meissen,  to  make  his  crucibles.  Bottcher  recognized  peculiar 
properties  in  this  earth,  and,  after  various  attempts,  he  obtained, 
in  1704,  a red  pottery,  dense,  solid,  very  hard,  and  possessing, 
therefore,  some  of  the  qualities  of  porcelain,  but  wanting  its 
translucidity,  the  most  essential  of  all.  This  pottery  was  nothing 
more  than  a kind  of  stoneware ; it  received,  however,  the  name 
of  red  porcelain. 

The  Elector,  under  the  pretext  of  withdrawing  him  from  the 
curiosity  of  the  public,  and  securing  him  the  quiet  needful  for  his 
work,  had  a laboratory  erected  for  him,  with  a large  number  of 
furnaces,  in  the  Chateau  of  Meissen.  Every  thing  was  given  him 
that  he  could  wish  for — a well  furnished  table,  horses  and  car- 
riages— but  he  never  was  trusted  out  of  sight,  or  permitted  to 
leave  the  chateau,  without  being  accompanied  by  an  officer  of  the 
Elector,  who  sat  beside  him  in  the  carriage  whenever  he  went  to 
Dresden,  so  fearful  were  they  of  his  making  his  escape,  and  carry- 
ing off  with  him  his  precious  secrets. 

While  thus  restrained,  he  still  continued  his  experiments,  and 
the  seclusion  he  had  to  submit  to  never  seemed  to  affect  his  spirits. 
Tschirnhaus  died — the  workmen  could  ill  endure  the  confine- 
ment— but  Bottcher  continued  his  pursuit,  and  at  last  he  produced 
a piece  of  pottery  able  to  resist  a high  temperature,  but  the  real 
porcelain  he  had  not  yet  succeeded  in  making.  The  principal 
material  for  this  was  wanting,  and  chance  brought  to  light  that 
which  science  had  failed  to  discover.  An  iron  merchant,  passing 
over  the  territory  of  Aue,  near  Schneeberg,  remarked  that  the 
feet  of  his  horse  sank  into  a white,  soft  earth.  The  idea  suggested 
itself  to  him,  of  reducing  this  earth  to  an  impalpable  powder,  and 
selling  it  at  Dresden,  as  a substitute  for  the  hair  powder,  made 


VASE,  FROM  THE  ROYAL  PRUSSIAN  MANUFACTORY.  p.  202 


f 

- 

• A ■-  ■; ' S , v: 

r 

: IS-;  ■ ,•  ■ ■'  'M  . - i.  ' i-\-  ;;?:>■ 


’ 


PORCELAIN. 


203 


of  wheat  flour,  at  that  time  in  general  use.  Bottcher’s  valet-de- 
chambre  used  it  one  day  for  powdering  the  wig  of  his  master, 
who,  observing  its  unusual  weight,  questioned  his  servant  as  to 
where  this  powder  came  from.  He  learned  that  it  was  earthy, 
made  trial  of  it,  and  recognized  in  it,  to  his  great  joy,  the  long- 
sought  kaolin,  the  substance  which  forms  the  principal  basis  of 
white  porcelain. 

At  length  Bottcher  succeeded  after  some  toil,  in  obtaining,  in 
1709,  a white  translucid  porcelain,  having  all  the  characters  of 
the  Chinese.  The  exportation  of  kaolin  was  then  prohibited,  un- 
der the  severest  penalties ; and  it  was  taken  to  the  manufactory 
in  sealed  casks.  The  most  minute  precautions  were  employed  to 
insure  the  secret  of  the  manufacture ; all  those  engaged  in  it 
were  sworn  to  silence  until  death,  and  whoever  betrayed  the  oath 
was  to  be  immured  for  life  as  a state  prisoner. 

This  desire  to  keep  the  process  of  manufacturing,  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  discovery  of  Bottcher ; it  was  particularly  the  case 
with  the  fine  fayence  of  Henry  II.,  and  although  it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  made  at  Thouars,  in  Touraine,  the  place  of  its  manu- 
facture is  now  not  positively  known.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  period,  when  the  samples  preserved  to  us  were  made, 
was  about  the  time  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II. 

The  process  of  making  the  hard  porcelain  of  China,  having 
once  been  introduced  at  Meissen,  the  princes  and  cities  of  Ger- 
many began  to  vie  with  each  other  in  establishing  manufactories 
of  this  much-sought  porcelain.  Two  ways  alone  could  lead  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  process  ; the  one  long  and  difficult,  that  afforded 
by  science  and  intense  labor ; the  other  more  easy,  but  dishonor- 
able, the  corruption  of  the  workmen  of  Meissen.  This  latter 
mode,  in  some  instances,  was  employed  in  preference.  In  this 
way  a manufactory  was  established  in  Vienna,  and  several  in  Ger- 
many. 

In  France,  things  went  on  differently.  As  early  as  1695,  arti- 
ficial porcelain,  known  as  soft  porcelain,  was  manufactured.  The 
composition  of  the  j>aste  of  this  porcelain  had  required  researches 
and  combinations  much  more  intricate  than  those  which  had  led 
to  the  production  of  hard  porcelain,  the  latter  being  obtained  by 


204 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  mixture  of  two  substances,  readily  furnished  by  nature. 
Kaolin  and  felspar  were  of  little  importance  in  the  composition 
of  soft  porcelain ; its  transparency  was  given  by  salts,  its  plasticity 
by  soap ; its  glaze  was  a crystal  glass,  composed  of  silex,  alkali 
and  lead. 

While,  during  sixty  years,  hard  porcelain  had  been  made  in 
Saxony,  France  had  only  been  able  to  produce  this  artificial  por- 
celain, which  could  never  be  considered  the  same  as  that  of  China, 
the  process  for  the  fabrication  of  which,  although  constantly  an 
object  of  pursuit,  remained  as  yet  undiscovered.  The  govern- 
ment, desirous  to  relieve  the  country  from  the  large  importations 
of  German  porcelain,  had  made  an  arrangement  with  the  director 
of  the  porcelain  manufactory  of  Strasburg  for  the  acquisition  of 
his  processes ; but  these  it  was  found  impossible  to  employ,  from 
the  want  of  the  principal  materials,  kaolin  and  felspar,  which  had 
not  been  discovered  in  France. 

Abed  of  kaolin  and  felspar  was  found  in  1765,  inAlengon,  but 
the  porcelain  made  with  these  materials  had  a gray  tinge,  and 
could  not  compare  with  that  of  the  Chinese.  Chance  soon  after- 
wards led  to  the  discovery  of  a bed  of  kaolin,  much  finer  and 
more  abundant,  and  by  which  France  was  at  length  supplied  with 
a very  fine,  hard  porcelain.  The  discovery  was  made  by  the  wife 
of  a surgeon,  at  Saint  Yrieix,  who,  having  noticed  a white  earth 
in  a ravine  near  the  town,  imagined  it  might  be  used  in  washing, 
for  soap.  Her  husband,  who  had  probably  heard  of  the  re- 
searches making  in  quest  of  porcelain  earth,  took  this  with  him 
to  Bordeaux,  and  showed  it  to  an  apothecary  of  that  city.  The 
latter  sent  specimens  of  it  to  the  chemist,  Macquer,  who  immedi- 
ately recognized  it  as  kaolin,  and  after  some  preliminary  experi- 
ments it  was  introduced  at  Sevres,  for  the  manufacture  of  hard 
porcelain. 

The  discovery  of  kaolin,  or  China  stone,  in  Cornwall,  in  1755, 
led  to  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  in  England.  Fine  ware  was 
made  in  different  localities  in  1758  and  1760,  and  in  1762  Wedg- 
wood very  much  improved  the  British  manufactures  in  Stafford- 
shire. But  of  these  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  in  their 
order. 


•liCEI. AIN  VASE 


PORCELAIN  VASES.  p.  205. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PORCELAIN. 

POTTERY  and  porcelain  are  each  divided  into  hard  and  soft, 
the  term  having  reference  both  to  the  composition  and  the 
degree  of  heat  to  which  it  has  been  exposed  in  the  furnace. 
Common  brick  is  soft,  and  fire  brick  is  hard : this  will  illustrate 
the  difference,  and  the  same  characteristics  may  be  applied  to  all 
varieties  of  pottery — the  soft  yielding  readily  to  the  scratch  of  a 
knife,  the  hard  resisting  it ; soft  pottery  consists  of  unglazed,  lus- 
trous, glazed,  and  enamelled ; hard,  of  fine  earthenware  and 
stoneware.  The  separating  line  between  pottery  and  porcelain 
is  the  opacity  of  the  pottery.  Porcelain  altogether  depends  upon 
the  quality  of  the  materials.  The  chief  ingredients  in  the  com. 
position  of  all  kinds  of  pottery  are  clay  and  flint ; these  are  both 
classed  by  the  chemists  among  the  primitive  earths.  The  first  of 
them,  in  its  state  of  purity,  is  denominated  alumina , or  oxide  of 
aluminum,  and  the  latter  is  called  silica , or  oxide  of  silicum. 

Clay  is  an  opaque  and  non-crystallized  body,  of  dull  fracture, 
soft  enough  in  all  states  to  take  a mark  from  iron ; when  breathed 
on,  it  exhales  an  odor  which,  from  its  peculiarities,  takes  its  name 
from  the  material  and  is  termed  argillaceous.  This  is  owing  to 
the  oxide  of  iron,  which  is  mixed  with  it,  as  clay,  when  absolutely 
pure,  does  not  emit  any  odor.  Clay  forms  with  Avater  a plastic 
paste,  having  considerable  tenacity,  and  which,  by  the  action  of 
heat,  is  brought  to  a very  great  degree  of  hardness.  It  is  com- 
pact, smooth,  and  almost  unctuous  to  the  touch,  and  when  dry 


206 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


may  be  easily  polished  with  the  hand.  It  is  not  soluble  in  water, 
but  mixes  readily  with  it  in  all  proportions.  The  description  of 
clay  employed  by  potters  is  infusible  in  the  heat  of  a porcelain 
furnace,  where  some  kinds,  owing  to  their  being  combined  with 
oxide  of  iron,  assume  a red  color,  while  others  become  of  a pure 
white.  The  highest  temperature  to  which  clay  can  be  exposed 
increases  its  density,  hardening  its  substance  and  diminishing  its 
volume  by  vaporizing  the  liquid  combined  with  it. 

Silica,  or  pure  flint,  which  forms  the  second  material  of  the 
composition  of  pottery,  is  of  common  occurrence  in  most  parts  of 
the  world.  Flint  is  silica  in  a state  nearly  approaching  to  purity. 
It  is  usually  gray,  with  occasional  striped  delineations  occurring 
in  the  substance.  It  is  obtained  generally  in  rolled  pieces,  but 
oftener  occurs  in  irregular  shapes.  It  has  internally  a glimmer- 
ing lustre ; its  fracture  is  conchoidal,  and  its  fragments  are  sharp- 
edged.  It  is  translucent,  and  when  two  pieces  are  rubbed  to- 
gether in  the  dark,  they  emit  phosphorescent  light,  and  give  off 
a peculiar  smell.  We  are  unable  to  dissolve  silex  in  water,  a 
process  that  is  constantly  going  on  by  natural  laws.  The  best 
flints  are  of  a dark  gray  color,  approaching  to  black,  and  having 
a considerable  clegree  of  transparency.  The  larger  masses,  dark 
and  clear  within  and  covered  with  a Avhite  crust,  are  preferred  by 
the  potter.  The  rolled  pieces  taken  from  chalk  cliffs  are  of  this 
description. 

The  clay  prized  by  manufacturers  for  the  finer  kinds  of  earth- 
enware and  porcelain,  was  discovered  in  Cornwall  in  1755,  and 
in  every  respect  resembles  the  kaolin  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  formed 
by  the  decomposition  of  felspathic  portions  of  granite  rocks.  It 
may  be  considered  an  artificial  production,  and  the  method  of 
preparing  it  is  as  follows  : 

The  places  are  selected  where  water  can  be  readily  procured, 
and  where  the  rock  is  in  a very  friable  state,  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  felspar.  The  less  of  other  minerals  the  rock  may 
contain,  and  the  harder,  the  heavier,  and  less  decomposed  these 
may  be,  the  better.  The  decomposed  rock,  usually  containing 
much  quartz,  is  commonly  exposed  on  an  inclined  plane  to  a fall 
of  a few  feet  of  water,  which  washes  it  down  to  a trench,  whence 


PORCELAIN  SERVICE, 


PORCELAIN. 


207 


it  is  conducted  to  catch-pits.  The  quartz,  and  the  schorl,  mica, 
or  other  materials  which  may  he  present,  are  in  a great  measure 
retained  in  the  first  catch-pit ; hut  there  is  a second  or  even  a 
third  pit  in  whichr  the  grosser  portions  are  collected,  before  the 
water  charged  with  the  finer  particles  of  the  decomposed  felspar 
in  mechanical  suspension  is  allowed  to  come  to  rest  in  tanks  or 
ponds  prepared  for  that  purpose.  In  these  the  matter  of  the 
kaolin  is  permitted  to  settle,  the  water  being  withdrawn  by 
means  of  holes  in  the  sides  of  the  tanks,  from  which  plugs  are 
removed  as  it  gradually  parts  with  the  matter  in  mechanical  sus- 
pension. By  repeating  this  process  the  tanks  become  nearly  full 
of  kaolin  in  a state  of  soft  clay.  This  by  exposure  to  the  air  is 
allowed  to  dry  sufficiently  to  be  cut  into  cubical  pieces  of  about 
nine  or  twelve  inches  in  the  sides,  which  are  then  carried  to  a 
roofed  building,  through  which  the  air  can  freely  pass,  and  are  so 
arranged  that  they  become  properly  dried  for  sale.  When  con- 
sidered sufficiently  dry,  the  outsides  of  the  lumps  are  carefully 
scraped,  and  the  pieces  of  kaolin  are  sent  to  the  potteries  in  bulk, 
or  packed  in  casks,  as  may  be  thought  desirable. 

In  preparing  the  clay,  the  first  operation  is  that  of  mixing  it 
with  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream.  For  this  jmrpose  the 
water  must  be  pure,  and  the  French  are  in  the  habit  of  using  only 
rain-water.  To  mix  the  clay  it  is  thrown  into  a cast-iron  cylin- 
der, four  feet  deep  and  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  Through  the 
centre  of  this  cylinder  runs  an  upright  shaft,  furnished  with 
knives  placed  as  radii  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft,  but  so  arranged 
upon  it  that  their  flat  sides  are  in  the  plane  of  a spiral  thread,  so 
that,  by  the  revolution  of  the  shaft,  the  knives  perform  the  double 
office  of  cutting  whatever  stands  in  their  way,  and  of  forcing 
downward  the  contents  of  the  cylinder  in  the  manner  of  a screw. 
Another  set  of  knives  is  inserted  in  the  interior  surface  of  the 
cylinder,  and  these  extend  to  the  shaft  in  the  centre,  parallel  to, 
and  corresponding  with,  the  revolving  knives ; thus  the  two  sets, 
the  one  active  and  the  other  passive,  have  the  effect  of  shears  in 
cutting  the  clay  into  small  pieces ; while  this,  in  its  reduced  state, 
is  at  the  same  time  forced  through  an  aperture  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cylinder,  and  transferred  to  a vat  for  the  purpose  of  being 


208 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


mixed  with,  water,  a process  which  this  previous  division  of  the 
clay  is  found  materially  to  facilitate.  In  the  vat  the  pulp  is 
mixed  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  and  is  passed  off  through  a 
series  of  sieves  of  increasing  degrees  of  fineness,  washed  to  and 
fro  by  machinery,  effecting  a separation  between  the  grosser 
parts  of  that  portion  which  is  fitted  to  enter  into  composition  of 
the  ware. 

The  flints  are  burned  in  a kiln  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
and  not  unlike  a lime-kiln.  While  red-hot  they  are  removed 
from  the  kiln  and  thrown  into  cold  water,  by  means  of  which 
their  attraction  of  aggregation  is  lessened,  so  as  to  facilitate 
greatly  the  subsequent  operation  of  grinding.  Then  they  are 
broken  and  carried  to  the  mill,  where  they  are  ground  by  ma- 
chinery. To  expedite  the  process,  and  at  the  same  time  to  grind 
the  flints  finer,  a quantity  of  water  is  thrown  with  them  into  the 
mill.  This  is  performed  in  a large  circular  vat,  and  when  the 
flints  are  thus  sufficiently  ground  the  semi-fluid  is  transferred  to 
another  vat,  also  constructed  with  an  upright  shaft,  furnished 
with  arms  or  vanes  for  the  purpose  of  agitation,  and  a considera- 
ble quantity  of  water  being  added,  the  moving  power  is  applied, 
and  the  whole  set  in  violent  motion.  The  grosser  parts  take 
their  place  at  the  bottom,  and  the  finer  portion,  remaining  in 
suspension,  is  drawn  off  and  placed  in  a reservoir  for  subsidence. 

The  dilution  of  clay  is  held  to  be  of  the  proper  consistency  for 
mixing,  when  a quantity  that  will  fill  a pint  measure  weighs 
twenty-four  ounces,  and  that  of  flint  is  equally  considered  suita- 
ble for  use,  when  the  same  bulk  is  brought  to  weigh  thirty-two 
ounces. 

The  clay  forms  five  parts  in  six  of  the  whole  mass ; to  this  are 
added  in  certain  proportions  the  flint,  already  described,  gypsum 
(plaster-of  Paris)  calcined  and  ground,  and  fragments  of  broken 
porcelain,  which  must  be  white,  and  ground  to  a fine  powder. 
The  proportions  of  each  vary  with  different  manufacturers.  The 
powder  of  calcined  bones  is  sometimes  introduced  in  England, 
together  with  a small  quantity  of  gypsum,  in  combination  with 
China  clay,  flint,  Cornish  stone,  and  enamel.  A very  beautiful 
and  transparent  white  is  thus  produced,  which,  however,  is  defi- 


PORCELAIN. 


209 


cient  in  density,  and  is  very  liable  to  crack  on  the  application  of 
hot  liquids. 

Prior  to  the  discovery  of  Bottcher,  the  porcelain  made  at 
Sevres  was  composed  of  saltpetre,  sea-salt,  alum,  Alicante  soda, 
gypsum,  and  sand.  This  made  the  opaque  substance  known  as 
soft  porcelain.  It  is  very  like  glass  in  its  nature,  but  will  support 
without  softening  a greater  degree  of  heat  than  suffices  to  melt 
glass.  Arsenic  also  enters  in  small  quantities  into  this  description 
of  porcelain,  and  few  moulders,  after  following  this  employment 
for  some  years,  escaped  severe  pulmonary  complaints.  The  man- 
ufacture was  discontinued  in  1804.  The  porcelain  earth  used  in 
Berlin  is  compounded  with  silicious  sand,  and  sulphate  of  lime,  in 
crystals.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  German  manufactories  felspar 
is  used,  and  some  employ  a calcareous  sand. 

When  the  dilutions  of  clay  and  flint  are  brought  together, 
they  are  intimately  united  by  agitation,  and  the  mixture,  while 
in  a state  of  semi-fluidity,  is  passed  through  different  sieves,  in 
order  to  separate  any  remaining  impurities,  together  with  such 
portions  as  have  not  been  sufficiently  ground.  By  these  means 
the  mass  presents  the  utmost  uniformity  and  smoothness  through- 
out. The  affinity  which  alumina  has  for  silica,  under  all  circum- 
stances, is  so  great,  that  they  will  unite  even  in  the  humid  way, 
forming  a kind  of  mortar ; and  when  this  becomes  hardened  by 
time,  it  is  thereafter  incapable  of  decomposition  by  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere. 

The  fluid  mixture  of  clay  and  flint  is  called  “ slip,”  and  after 
passing  through  the  sieve,  is  pumped  to  the  slip-kiln.  This  is  a 
kind  of  trough,  formed  of  fire  bricks,  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  in 
length,  and  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  depth.  Flues  from 
fireplaces  pass  under  the  whole  extent  of  the  trough,  in  which 
the  fluid  is  made  to  boil,  and  the  process  of  evaporation  is  slowly 
conducted,  so  as  to  produce  a uniform  consistency  throughout 
the  mass.  This  evaporation  requires  careful  attention,  and  the 
mass  must  be  frequently  stirred  and  turned  over ; otherwise,  from 
the  imperfect  manner  in  which  it  conducts  heat,  the  portions  in 
contact  with  the  bricks  would  become  improperly  hardened, 
while  the  remainder  continued  fluid  • in  addition  to  which,  flint 


210 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


being  specifically  heavier  than  clay,  would  have  a tendency  to 
subside  to  the  bottom,  and  thus  render  the  composition  unequal. 
The  evaporation  is  never  carried  beyond  a certain  point,  for 
should  the  mass  become  too  dry  it  would  be  impossible  to  knead 
it  properly,  or  to  mould  it  on  the  wheel  into  the  desired  forms. 

To  remove  the  air-bubbles  when  the  paste  comes  from  the 
kiln,  it  is  tempered  by  working  or  beating  it  with  wooden  mal- 
lets ; then  it  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  which  are  thrown  upon  the 
mass  with  all  the  strength  of  the  workman,  and  these  operations 
are  persisted  in  till  the  whole  is  brought  to  a proper  state,  when 
it  is  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  for  a considerable  length  of 
time  before  it  is  used. 

When  the  paste  is  to  be  worked  into  form,  it  first  undergoes 
what  is  called  the  slapping  process,  which  is  assigned  to  a man 
of  considerable  strength,  who  cuts  out  a piece  of  about  fifty  or 
sixty  pounds,  and  hurls  it  with  all  his  strength  upon  the  mass, 
repeating  the  operation  until  the  whole  lump  exhibits  a perfectly 
smooth  and  close  appearance  wherever  it  is  cut.  So  complete  is 
the  incorporation  of  the  whole  mass  by  this  means,  that  if,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  process,  two  pieces  of  clay  of  different 
colors  are  taken,  the  lump  will  be  of  one  uniform  hue,  intermedi- 
ate to  the  two  original  colors,  when  completed.  The  object  had 
in  view  in  this  operation  is  the  removal  of  all  air  bubbles,  the 
effect  of  which  will  be  described  before  leaving  the  subject.  The 
process  is  now  effected  in  some  manufactories  by  steam,  pressure 
being  employed  instead  of  slapping. 

The  operation  of  throwing  consists  in  shaping  such  vessels  as 
have  a circular  form.  This  is  performed  upon  a machine  called  a 
potter’s  lathe,  consisting  of  an  upright  shaft,  about  the  height  of 
a common  table,  on  the  top  of  which  is  fixed  a circular  piece  of 
wood,  with  a breadth  sufficient  to  support  the  widest  vessel 
required  to  be  made.  The  lathe  is  set  in  motion  by  means  of 
an  endless  band  connecting  the  shaft  that  supports  the  circular 
board  on  which  the  clay  is  shaped,  with  a large  wheel  turned  by 
a boy. 

The  clay  to  be  thrown  is  first  cut,  weighed,  and  formed  into 
a ball.  Then  it  is  placed  on  the  face  of  the  circular  board,  which 


PORCELAIN. 


211 


is  put  in  motion,  and  the  thrower , dipping  his  hands  into  water 
or  slip  from  time  to  time,  fashions  the  clay  into  a long  thin  col- 
umn, which  he  forces  down  into  a lump  again,  and  this  operation 
is  continued  till  he  is  sure  no  air  bubbles  remain  in  the  body  of 
the  clay.  Then  he  directs  that  the  speed  of  the  wheel  shall  be 
moderate,  and  proceeds  to  give  the  first  form  to  the  vessel.  This 
is  done  by  the  fingers  alone,  or  with  the  aid  of  an  instrument 
shaped  according  to  the  desired  form. 

When  vessels  exactly  similar  to  each  other  in  shape  and  di- 
mensions are  to  be  made,  certain  pegs  are  fixed  in  a gauge  with- 
out the  circumference  of  the  revolving  board,  and  placed  in  such 
a manner  that,  when  the  clay  is  brought  to  the  line  thus  formed, 
the  thrower  knows  that  the  article  has  attained  the  proper  dimen- 
sions. When  finished  to  the  workman’s  satisfaction,  it  is  removed 
from  the  lathe  by  passing  a thin  brass  wire  through  the  lowest 
part  of  the  cup.  It  is  then  lifted  off  and  placed  on  a board  or 
shelf,  to  dry  partially  before  it  is  smoothed  and  shaped  in  the 
turning  lathe.  This  takes  place  in  what  is  termed  the  green 
state,  and  the  proper  degree  of  hardness  for  it  is  well  known  to 
the  workman. 

Circular  dishes,  plates,  saucers,  and  other  vessels  of  that  class, 
are  formed  in  moulds  made  of  plaster.  To  effect  this,  the  mould 
is  slightly  sprinkled  with  powdered  porcelain,  sifted  through  a 
fine  cloth,  and  is  then  placed  on  the  block  which  surmounts  the 
upright  spindle  of  the  lathe.  The  block  is  then  set  in  motion, 
and  the  clay  is  fashioned  in  the  first  place  by  the  hand  of  the 
workman,  which  presses  it  against  the  mould,  and  afterwards 
with  a profile,  to  give  the  requisite  internal  form.  If  any  ledge 
or  foot  is  required,  it  is  affixed  afterwards  with  slip.  All  super- 
fluous parts  are  cut  away,  and  the  whole  is  finished  with  proper 
tools  and  a damp  sponge.  When  sufficiently  dry  to  be  taken 
from  the  moulds,  the  edges  are  pared  with  a sharp  knife,  and  the 
pieces  are  slightly  polished  by  the  hand.  Then  they  are  placed 
in  piles  of  from  six  to  ten  or  more,  according  to  their  weight  and 
solidity,  and  are  left  to  harden,  preparatory  to  their  being  put 
into  the  oven. 

The  turning  lathe  of  the  potter  is  similar  to  that  used  by  the 


212 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


turner  in  wood.  The  end  of  the  spindle  has  a screw  thread,  upon 
which  are  screwed  chucks  of  wood,  tapering  in  their  form,  and 
differing  in  their  diameter  according  to  the  size  of  the  article  to 
be  turned.  The  tools  employed  are  also  of  different  sizes,  from  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  two  inches  broad,  and  six  inch  es  long,  made 
of  iron ; the  cutting  edge  being  turned  up  about  one-quarter  of 
an  inch,  and  ground  to  a good  edge.  The  vessel,  properly  fitted 
to  the  lathe,  is  set  in  motion ; the  turner  reduces  the  substance 
of  the  clay  in  such  parts  as  require  it,  to  form  rings  and  rims,  and 
to  attend  to  those  little  niceties  of  shape  which  are  not  easily  ob- 
tainable in  the  throwing  lathe,  while,  by  reversing  the  motion, 
and  applying  the  flat  part  of  the  tool  to  the  vessel  with  a gentle 
pressure,  the  requisite  smoothness  of  surface  and  solidity  of  tex- 
ture is  produced.  And  when  a milled  edge  is  desired,  it  is  given 
in  an  engine  lathe,  where,  in  addition  to  the  rotary  motion  com- 
municated to  the  article,  it  has  likewise  a horizontal  movement 
to  and  fro,  enabling  the  workman  to  make  the  incisions  at  proper 
and  definite  intervals. 

After  the  vessels  are  turned,  the  handles  and  spouts  are  affixed 
by  means  of  slip,  with  which  the  parts  brought  into  contact  are 
moistened.  In  a short  time  the  juncture  is  found  to  be  perfect, 
and  with  a knife  the  superfluous  clay  is  removed.  The  whole 
vessel  is  then  cleaned  with  a damp  sponge,  which  moistens  the 
whole  equally,  and  gives  uniformity  to  its  appearance. 

Handles,  spouts,  and  objects  of  that  nature,  are  made  with 
the  aid  of  a press,  consisting  of  a small  metallic  cylinder,  which 
has  an  aperture  in  the  centre  of  its  bottom,  to  which  plugs  with 
different-shaped  orifices  are  fitted.  It  has  also  a piston,  moved 
by  a screw,  which  works  through  an  iron  bow,  attached  to  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  cylinder.  The  aperture  at  the  bottom  is  fitted 
with  a plug  of  the  desired  form,  the  cylinder  is  charged  with  clay 
and  the  piston  inserted  ; by  turning  the  screw  the  piston  is  forced 
down  upon  the  clay,  which  is  forced  through  the  oj:>ening  in  the 
proper  shape.  This  is  cut  into  length,  bent  into  the  required 
form,  and  attached  to  the  vessel  when  sufficiently  dry.  If  the 
clay  is  required  to  take  a hollow,  cylindrical  form,  for  spouts,  a 
pin  of  the  same  diameter  of  the  tube  desired  is  fixed  above  the 


PORCELAIN. 


213 


centre  of  the  tube,  and  the  clay  is  forced  over  and  around  it  in  its 
passage  out.  But  if  ornamental  spouts  are  wanted,  they  can  only 
be  made  in  moulds  of  plaster.  The  moulds  are  in  two  parts,  and 
when  they  are  brought  together  the  clay  is  forced  into  the  space 
between  them ; the  mould  is  then  divided,  the  clay  is  removed 
and  finished  by  the  workmen  with  suitable  tools.  This  is  the 
operation  known  as  pressing.  The  moulds  are  made  of  plaster- 
of-Paris,  the  peculiar  fitness  of  which  material  for  the  purpose 
arises  from  its  property  of  absorbing  water  with  great  rapidity, 
so  that  the  paste  enclosed  in  it  speedily  dries  in  a sufficient  de- 
gree to  deliver  itself  (according  to  the  workmen’s  phrase)  easily 
from  the  mould. 

Small  ornaments,  such  as  figures,  animals,  foliage,  and  the 
like,  are  made  by  pressing  the  clay  into  plaster  moulds,  previous- 
ly oiled  slightly,  to  insure  the  easy  delivery  of  the  ornaments. 
These  are  then  affixed  to  the  vessel  by  means  of  slip,  and  it  is 
in  this  way  that  drinking-jugs  are  commonly  ornamented  with 
figures. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  plaster  for  making  moulds,  it  is  first 
ground  between  a pair  of  stones,  in  a mill  exactly  similar  to  that 
employed  in  grinding  wheat.  It  is  next  boiled,  in  order  to  drive 
off  the  water,  which  forms  a considerable  constituent  part  of  its 
natural  substance.  There  is  something  seemingly  absurd  in  thus 
speaking  of  boiling  a dry  earthy  substance,  but  the  Workmen  who 
use  the  term  are  not  very  far  wrong  in  their  expression.  To  all 
appearances  ebullition  goes  on  rapidly  in  the  operation,  and  steam 
is  disengaged  as  in  the  boiling  of  watery  fluids.  When  the  pro- 
cess is  completed  the  substance  is  called  boiled  plaster.  The 
evaporation  is  continued  in  long  brick  troughs,  such  as  have 
already  been  described,  and  the  man  who  superintends  the  pro- 
cess is  obliged  to  wear  a handkerchief  over  his  mouth  and  nos- 
trils, to  prevent  the  passage  of  any  particles  of  the  gypsum  to  his 
lungs  or  stomach. 

Thus  deprived  of  its  water,  the  plaster  becomes  an  impalpable 
powder,  but  when  its  natural  proportion  of  water  is  again  added, 
so  strong  is  its  affinity  for  that  liquid,  and  such  is  its  capacity  for 
again  combining  with  itself  that  which  it  has  been  deprived  of, 


214 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


that  it  attracts  and  condenses  the  whole,  and  will  immediately 
set  into  a hard  and  very  compact  mass,  peculiarly  suitable  for  the 
purpose  here  required. 

The  consumption  of  plaster-of-Paris  in  making  moulds  for 
plates  and  dishes  is  so  considerable,  that  in  the  district  compre- 
hending the  potteries  in  Staffordshire,  many  tons  are  annually 
worn  out  and  thrown  away  as  useless. 

Articles  placed  in  these  moulds  part  with  their  moisture  so 
rapidly  that,  when  put  in  a very  temperate  stove,  they  will  be- 
come dry  enough  for  removal  in  two  hours,  and  each  individual 
mould  is  capable  of  being  used  for  forming  four  or  five  different 
articles  in  the  course  of  a working  day  of  twelve  hours. 

Moulds  for  producing  simple  wares,  such  as  plates  and  dishes, 
and  generally  for  such  articles  as  are  formed  by  pressure,  are 
simple  in  their  construction ; but  others,  which  are  used  for  the 
third  department,  that  of  casting,  call  for  much  more  art  and 
skill  for  their  invention  and  execution.  For  these  the  taste  of 
the  modeller  is  put  into  requisition,  calling  for  the  exertion  on 
his  part  of  a high  degree  of  skill  and  ingenuity  in  forming  pat- 
terns, and  adapting  to  them  appropriate  ornaments.  To  com- 
plete the  model  it  must  be  trimmed,  carved,  touched  and  re- 
touched with  suitable  tools,  constructed  of  metal  or  wood,  and 
sometimes  even  of  ivory,  for  the  more  perfect  finish  of  the  whole 
composition.  ‘ Then  it  passes  into  the  hands  of  the  mould-maker, 
whose  operations  are  quite  mechanical  and  distinct  from  that  of 
the  modeller. 

A strong  case  of  clay  is  first  formed  and  securely  fixed  round 
the  model,  leaving  sufficient  space  between  for  the  substance  of 
the  mould.  Proper  proportions  of  plaster-of-Paris  and  water  are 
then  placed  in  a jug,  and  the  mixture  is  briskly  stirred,  so  that 
the  water  very  thoroughly  pervades  the  whole,  which  is  then 
poured  gently  upon  and  around  the  model,  covering  it  in  every 
part  to  the  requisite  degree  of  thickness.  The  drying  follows, 
and  in  a very  short  time  the  mass  may  easily  be  separated  from 
the  model,  when  it  will  be  found  to  exhibit  a perfect  impression 
of  its  form. 

Many  articles  were  formerly  made  by  casting,  which  are  now 


PORCELAIN  VASES  AND  PITCHERS.  p.  214 


PORCELAIN. 


215 


produced  by  the  operation  of  pressing  last  described.  Casting  is 
now  employed  only  for  the  formation  of  irregular-shaped  vessels, 
when  much  nicety  is  required,  and  which  need  not  have  much 
strength.  The  casting  operation  is  performed  by  intimately  mix- 
ing the  united  clay  and  flint  with  very  pure  water,  to  the  consist- 
ency of  cream.  On  pouring  this  dilution  into  the  mould,  the 
plaster  quickly  absorbs  water  from  that  portion  which  lies  in  con- 
tact with  its  surface,  when  the  central  portion,  still  in  a fluid 
state,  is  poured  off,  and  a coating  of  clay  will  remain  attached  to 
the  mould.  The  coating  is  allowed  to  dry  in  part,  and  then  a 
second  charge,  heavier  than  the  first,  is  poured  in  and  added  to 
the  substance  of  the  first  deposit.  When  it  has  remained  there 
sufficiently  long  for  a portion  of  it  to  dry,  the  surplus  is  poured 
off,  and  so  soon  as  the  contents  of  the  mould  are  sufficiently  dry 
to  allow  of  a separation,  the  article  is  taken  out  and  left  until  it  is 
brought  to  the  green  state,  when  all  imperfections  are  rectified  by 
the  workman,  whose  skill  is  exerted  to  render  the  vessel  as  smooth 
and  perfect  as  possible. 

When  the  vessels  that  have  been  moulded  are  in  a fit  state  to 
undergo  the  first  application  of  fire,  they  are  placed  in  deep 
boxes,  called  seggars,  made  of  a mixture  of  fine  clay  and  old 
ground  seggars,  which  should  be  well  baked  and  capable  of  re- 
sisting the  most  intense  heat  without  being  fused. 

The  object  of  the  seggar  is  to  protect  the  ware,  while  baking, 
from  the  direct  application  of  flame  and  smoke ; and  the  heat, 
which  is  somewhat  modified  in  its  transmission  through  them, 
applies  itself  uniformly  to  each  part  of  the  vessel.  The  cases  are 
made  of  various  sizes  and  depths,  to  suit  the  different  pieces  they 
are  to  contain,  and  some  judgment  is  required  in  their  composi- 
tion, to  fit  them  for  the  several  kinds  of  pottery.  Again,  skill  is 
required  so  to  dispose  the  cases  within  the  oven,  with  reference 
to  their  shape,  size,  and  the  objects  they  contain,  that  the  heat 
may  be  distributed  as  faithfully  as  possible,  and  that  all  the  dif- 
ferent-sized vessels  maybe  sufficiently  baked  at  the  same  time. 
The  larger  and  coarser  pieces  are  usually  placed  on  the  floor  of 
the  oven,  which  must  be  previously  covered  with  a layer  of  sand. 
If  the  heat  be  not  faithfully  distributed  through  the  whole  area, 


216 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


some  pieces  must  be  injured  by  excessive  firing,  while  others 
would  be  inadequately  baked.  The  bottom  of  seggars  being  flat, 
each,  as  it  is  placed  upon  another,  forms  a cover  to  the  one  below, 
and  the  entrance  of  the  smoke  is  further  prevented  by  placing  a 
ring  of  soft  clay  on  the  uj)per  rim  of  each  case.  In  this  manner 
the  seggars  are  built  one  upon  another,  until  they  reach  nearly 
to  the  top  of  the  oven.  The  upper  seggar  in  each  pile  is  always 
empty,  and,  in  building  them  up,  intermediate  spaces  of  about 
three  inches  must  be  left  for  the  circulation  of  heated  air  through- 
out. 

To  prevent  any  adhesion  of  the  pieces  to  the  seggars,  the  flat 
bottom  of  each  is  covered  with  a thin  layer  of  white  sand,  and 
the  Chinese  strew  over  the  sand  some  dry  kaolin.  Pieces  of  any 
considerable  size  must  each  be  enclosed  in  a separate  case  ; but 
smaller  objects,  such  as  cups  or  saucers,  may  be  placed  together 
to  the  number  of  six  or  twelve,  but  in  no  case  must  one  piece 
be  placed  in  or  on  another  in  the  seggar,  and  all  must  be  so 
arranged  that  the  heat  will  be  equally  applied  to  every  part  of 
each. 

The  potter’s  oven  is  now  always  made  of  a cylindrical  form, 
and  very  similar  to  the  common  kilns  used  for  burning  tiles.  The 
furnace  mouths  of  the  oven  are  placed  at  certain  intervals  around 
it ; from  these  the  fire  and  heated  air  pass  into  horizontal  flues  in  j 
the  floor,  and  then  ascend  through  all  the  interstitial  spaces  be-  j 
tween  the  seggars,  until  the  surplus  heat  escapes  through  an  aper- 
ture in  the  roof. 

The  Chinese  subject  the  greater  part  of  their  porcelain  to  only 
one  firing,  first  drying  the  pieces  sufficiently  in  the  air  to  prepare  ' 
them  for  glazing.  This  plan  they  are  able  to  pursue,  because  the 
nature  of  their  material  is  such  that  it  resists  the  entrance  of 
water.  Their  glaze  is  much  superior  to  any  in  use  in  European  i 
potteries ; but  it  requires  the  most  intense  degree  of  heat  for  its  | 
fusion,  and  considerable  art  is  consequently  required  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  fire,  as  well  as  in  the  construction  of  their  ovens. 
These  are  built  in  the  most  substantial  manner,  so  that  when  the  1 
fire  is  at  its  greatest  height  the  hand  may  be  applied  to  the  out- 
side without  any  fear  of  burning. 


PORCELAIN. 


217 


Great  attention  is  necessary  for  properly  conducting  the  ope- 
ration of  baking.  The  heat  must  be  sufficient  to  expel  all  the 
moisture,  and  occasion  the  cohesion  of  the  parts  whereof  the 
paste  is  composed ; but  if  carried  too  far  the  texture  of  the  ware 
becomes  too  homogeneal,  and  it  is  rendered  brittle.  It  requires 
a degree  of  heat  sufficient  to  melt  silver  (1873  Fahrenheit)  in 
order  to  expel  the  last  portion  of  water  from  clay,  and,  when  this 
has  been  effected,  it  is  found  that  the  weight  of  alumina  is  dimin- 
ished forty-six  per  cent. 

The  process  of  baking  usually  lasts  from  forty  to  fifty  hours, 
during  which  time  the  heat  is  gradually  increased,  as  it  would  be 
injurious  to  apply  a very  high  degree  at  first.  In  order  to  ascer- 
tain when  the  baking  has  been  carried  far  enough,  the  oven-man 
places  trial  pieces  in  different  parts  of  the  oven,  but  so  disposed 
that  they  can  readily  be  taken  out  for  examination.  These  pieces 
are  rings  of  common  Staffordshire  fire  clay,  which  has  the  prop- 
erty of  changing  its  color  with  each  accession  of  temperature. 
By  comparing  these  rings,  therefore,  with  pieces  of  the  same 
clay,  which  have  previously  been  sufficiently  baked,  and  which 
serve  as  a standard,  the  actual  progress  of  the  wares  in  the  oven 
may  at  any  time  be  precisely  ascertained.  When  the  appearance 
of  these  trial  pieces  is  judged  satisfactory,  the  firing  is  discon- 
tinued, furnace  and  ash  pit  doors  are  closed,  and  the  oven,  with 
its  contents,  left  to  cool  gradually  during  twenty-four  hours. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  delay  the  withdrawing  of  the  pieces  from 
the  oven  until  they  become  quite  cold,  but  the  sudden  alteration 
of  the  temperature  would  occasion  them  to  crack,  if  they  were 
taken  out  while  their  heat  was  greatly  above  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

From  the  similarity  of  its  appearance  to  well-baked  ship- 
bread,  the  ware  in  this  stage  is  called  biscuit.  Its  permeability 
to  water  when  in  this  state  fits  it  for  being  employed  in  cooling 
liquids.  If  previously  soaked  in  water,  the  gradual  evaporation 
from  its  surface,  by  means  of  the  air,  causes  an  absorption  of 
heat  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  which  is  again  supplied 
by  neighboring  objects,  until  an  equilibrium  of  temperature  is 
restored. 


10 


218 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


If  it  were  attempted  to  apply  the  glaze  to  articles  of  porcelain 
and  earthenware,  without  their  previous  conversion  into  biscuit, 
their  shape  and  texture  would  be  injured  by  the  absorption  of 
water  from  the  glaze.  N either  would  it,  for  the  same  reason,  be 
possible  to  ornament  the  ware  by  painting,  or  to  transfer  patterns 
to  the  surface  by  printing.  There  is  another  reason  given  for 
the  necessity  of  this  previous  baking,  in  the  greater  contractibility 
of  the  clay  than  of  the  glaze,  which  would  crack  and  peel  off  if 
the  limit  of  contraction  had  not  been  previously  attained.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  shrinking  of  clay  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  is  permanent,  and  that  no  alteration  of  its  bulk  will 
occur,  unless  it  be  subjected  to  a still  higher  degree  of  tempera- 
ture. By  limiting,  therefore,  the  heat  of  the  glass  oven  in  which 
the  baking  is  finished,  below  that  applied  to  the  biscuit,  the  evil 
of  cracking  the  glaze,  through  the  contraction  of  the  ware,  is 
avoided. 

Glazes  for  porcelain  and  the  finer  kinds  of  earthenware,  are 
generally  made  with  white  lead,  ground  flints,  ground  flint  glass, 
and  common  salt.  Sand,  combined  with  soda,  as  a flux,  being 
frequently  added  to  the  ingredients  just  mentioned.  Almost 
every  manufacturer  uses  a peculiar  glaze,  which  is  kept  secret 
by  him  as  much  as  possible.  It  is  necessary  to  vary  the  com- 
position of  the  glaze  in  order  to  suit  the  different  materials 
that  form  the  body  of  the  ware,  since  that  would  be  a very 
fine  glaze  for  one  mixture  of  earth,  which  would  be  wholly  inap- 
propriate to  another,  proving  deficient  in  lustre,  and  liable  to 
crack. 

The  qualities  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  manufacturer  to 
give  to  porcelain  of  the  first  description,  are,  density,  whiteness, 
transparency,  and  fine  texture  of  the  glaze.  These  properties 
are  esteemed  in  the  order  enumerated,  compactness  of  body  being 
the  point  it  is  considered  most  desirable  to  attain.  The  glaze,  as 
seen  in  the  finished  porcelain,  should  not  put  on  a lustrous  ap- 
pearance ; but,  while  beautifully  smooth  to  the  touch,  should 
present  to  the  eye  rather  the  softness  of  velvet  than  the  gloss  of 
satin.  This  peculiar  semblance  will  only  be  produced  with  glaze 
that  melts  with  difficulty,  and  when  the  heat  has  been  raised  pre- 


PORCELAIN. 


219 


eisely  to,  and  not  beyond,  the  point  that  is  necessary  for  its 
fusion. 

Porcelain  buttons,  sometimes  called  agate  buttons,  are  readily 
made,  on  the  principle  of  forming  mosaic  tesserae,  by  a machine 
invented  for  that  purpose,  and  in  1837  the  first  button  was  made 
by  it.  The  buttons  are  made  by  what  is  known  as  the  “ dry  pro- 
cess,” i.  e.  by  a pressure  sufficiently  great  to  compress  the  dry 
porcelain  powder  into  a hard  and  enduring  shape.  They  are 
made  by  women,  who  often  turn  out  twenty-five  buttons  in  a 
minute,  but  the  usual  rate  is  from  twelve  to  eighteen  a minute 
the  year  round.  The  price  paid  is  one  cent  per  gross,  at  which 
rate  one  woman  earns  from  three  dollars  to  four  and  a half  dol- 
lars per  week.  Bricks  and  tiles,  tesserae  and  joints  for  fireplaces, 
keys  for  pianofortes,  and,  in  short,  all  kinds  of  flat  articles  have 
been,  and  still  continue  to  be,  made  in  almost  endless  quantities 
in  this  way,  and  floors  are  not  unfrequently  laid  with  the  same 
material. 

Stoneware  is  a very  perfect  kind  of  pottery,  and  approaches 
nearer  than  any  other  description  to  the  character  of  porcelain. 
Its  body  is  exceedingly  dense  and  compact,  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  although  vessels  formed  of  it  are  usually  glazed,  this  cover- 
ing is  given  to  them  more  with  a view  to  improving  an  attractive 
appearance  than  for  preserving  them  from  the  action  of  liquids. 
When  properly  made  and  baked,  stoneware  is  sufficiently  hard  to 
strike  fire  from  flint,  and  is  as  durable  as  porcelain. 

The  basis  of  English  stoneware  is  blue  clay,  brought  from 
Dorsetshire  and  Devonshire,  where  it  is  found  twenty-five  or 
thirty  feet  below  the  surface.  This  clay  is  very  refractory  in 
high  heats,  a property  which,  joined  to  its  whiteness  when  burnt, 
renders  it  peculiarly  valuable  for  pottery.  It  is  also  the  basis  of 
the  yellow  biscuit  ware,  called  cream  color,  and  in  general  of 
what  is  called  the  printing  body;  as  also  for  the  semi-vitreous 
porcelain  of  Wedgwood’s  invention,  and  of  the  soft  porcelain. 
Porcelain  differs  from  stoneware  in  having  a flux  mixed  with  the 
clay,  so  that  a semi-vitrifaction  results  in  the  process  of  firing. 
The  Queen’s  ware  and  cream-colored  bodies  of  Wedgwood  are 
composed  of  Cornish  China  clay,  with  a large  admixture  of  blue 


220 


AET-MANUFACTTJEES. 


clay,  black  clay,  brown  clay,  and  calcined  flints.  In  the  blue 
ware,  and  such  as  arc  printed  with  fancy  patterns,  there  is  an 
addition  of  a tolerably  large  quantity  of  decomposed  granite. 
All  the  parts  are  worked  together  much  after  the  manner  already 
described. 

The  origin  of  the  improved  stoneware  is  traced  to  the  obser- 
vations of  Ashbury,  a potter,  who,  while  travelling  to  London  on 
horseback,  in  1720,  had  occasion  at  Dunstable  to  seek  a remedy 
for  a disorder  in  his  horse’s  eye,  when  the  hostler  of  the  inn  burnt 
a flint,  and  reduced  it  to  a powder,  which  he  immediately  blew 
into  the  diseased  eye.  The  potter  observed  the  beautiful  white 
color  of  the  flint  when  calcined,  and  resolved  to  apply  it  in  his 
art.  He  preceded  Wedgwood. 

In  every  way  Wedgwood  is  regarded  by  his  countrymen  as  a 
benefactor ; as  a manufacturer  he  improved  the  articles  which  he 
produced,  and  thus  improved  the  trade  of  the  potter.  The  ter- 
ra-cotta which  he  made  to  resemble  porphyry,  granite,  and  Egyp- 
tian pebble,  was  not  only,  as  a material,  superior  to  any  thing  pre- 
viously made  in  England,  but  he  introduced  it  to  the  public  in 
forms  of  exceeding  elegance.  His  Basaltes,  or  black  stoneware, 
realized  in  every  sense  its  name ; it  will  emit  sparks  when  struck 
with  a steel,  it  is  capable  of  a very  high  polish,  resists  the  actions 
of  the  strongest  acids,  and  is  infusible  at  any  ordinary  furnace 
heat.  The  wdiite  porcelain  ware  was  of  the  same  general  cha- 
racter as  the  preceding,  differing  from  it  only  in  its  pure  white 
character.  The  Bamboo  and  Jasper  were  essentially  stonewares, 
and  from  the  state  of  semi-fusion  to  which  they  were  subjected, 
they  could  be  made  to  absorb  the  same  coloring  bodies — metallic 
oxides — as  are  used  to  color  glass,  or  in  the  process  of  enamel- 
ling. The  table  ware,  better  known  as  Queen’s  ware,  already 
referred  to,  (so  named  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  the 
Queen,  who  admired  the  production,)  was  in  every  respect  su- 
perior to  any  thing  hitherto  manufactured  in  Europe. 


PORCELAIN  YASE  (BERLIN.)  p.  221. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PORCELAIN. 

I 1ST  painting  on  porcelain,  many  points  are  to  be  considered,  and 
a proper  acquaintance  with  the  colors  to  be  used  and  the  nature 
of  the  fluxes,  is  necessary  to  successful  operations.  The  fluxes 
render  the  composition  of  the  colors  fusible,  unite  them  to  the 
wares,  and,  in  many  cases,  impart  brilliancy  to  their  tints.  The 
vehicle  employed  in  laying  on  the  colors  must  be  looked  to,  and 
the  course  to  be  pursued  in  fixing  them  on  the  porcelain  by  means 
of  heat,  must  be  understood. 

Metallic  oxides  form  the  basis  of  all  vitrified  colors,  but  every 
metallic  oxide  cannot  be  employed  in  decorating  porcelain ; some 
are  highly  volatile,  as  the  oxide  of  mercury  and  of  arsenic  ; others 
part  so  freely  with  oxygen  they  hold  in  combination,  that  their 
color  proves  uncertain,  and  varies  with  every  application  of  heat ; 
such  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  red  oxide  of  lead,  and  the  yellow 
oxide  of  gold.  Black  oxide  of  iron  is  not  used  alone  for  pro- 
ducing that  color  in  porcelain.  It  affords  a great  variety  of  tints, 
both  in  the  various  combinations  of  its  own  oxides  and  their  mix- 
ture with  those  of  other  metals.  Alone  it  affords  a red,  a brown, 
and  a violet ; and  mixed  with  the  oxides  of  cobalt,  or  oxides  of 
zinc,  it  furnishes  a black,  a gray,  sepia  and  yellow.  The  colors 
formed  by  the  oxide  of  iron  will  not,  however,  stand  the  greatest 
heat  of  the  furnace  ; it  combines  at  a very  high  temperature  with 
the  flint  of  the  body,  and  thus  becomes  a colorless  silicate  of  iron. 
But  if  the  quantity  of  the  oxide  of  iron  be  increased  considerably 


222 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


above  the  quantity  that  will  combine  with  the  silica  of  the  felspar, 
a reddish-brown  color  is  obtained,  called  technically,  brown-lake . 
By  careful  attention  to  calcining  the  sulphate  of  iron,  orange-yel- 
low, then  red,  carmine,  lake,  and  lastly,  violet,  can  be  obtained. 
The  browns,  grays,  and  blacks,  for  porcelain,  are  produced  with 
oxide  of  iron  formed  by  precipitation  from  some  persalt  by  am- 
monia, potash  or  soda.  Emerald  green  is  produced  by  employ- 
ing a mixture  of  oxides  of  copper  and  iron. 

Oxides,  unaccompanied  with  other  substances,  are  not  suscep- 
tible of  fusion ; and  although  they  may  be  attached  in  their  strata 
to  verifiable  bodies  by  a very  violent  heat,  yet  their  colors,  with 
the  exception  of  lead  and  bismuth,  would,  in  such  cases,  become 
dull,  and  possibly  be  even  destroyed.  In  order,  then,  to  promote 
a fusion,  a flux  is  added,  the  composition  of  which  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  means  employed  for  diluting  the  colors  at  the  time 
they  are  used.  Where  a volatile  oil  is  chosen  for  the  dilution,  a 
flux  composed  of  glass,  nitre  and  borax,  is  most  proper  ; but  when, 
as  in  the  Sevres  manufactory,  gum-water  is  substitued,  the  flux 
must  be  varied,  because  borax  cannot  be  properly  diluted  in  gum- 
water.  Glass,  lead  and  silex  is  one  compound  recommended ; and 
glass,  calcined,  borax  and  refined  nitre  is  another.  It  is  indis- 
pensable not  only  that  the  borax  and  nitre  be  as  pure  as  they  can 
be  rendered,  but  also  that  the  glass  shall  not  contain  the  smallest 
particle  of  lead  in  its  composition.  These  ingredients  must  first 
be  well  triturated  together  in  a glass  mortar,  and  then  exposed  in 
a crucible  to  the  heat  of  a charcoal  fire,  until  the  swelling,  which 
for  a time  accompanies  the  fusion  of  the  mass,  has  ceased.  By 
means  of  this  flux,  the  colors  are  fixed  upon  the  porcelain,  and 
made  to  assume  a resplendent  ajDpearance ; the  metallic  oxides 
are  enveloped  by  the  flux,  which  preserves  them  from  all  contact 
with  the  air,  and  their  color  is  rendered  permanent,  the  fusion 
having  been  promoted  at  a temperature  too  low  for  their  destruc- 
tion. 

Enamel  is  glass  made  opaque  by  the  oxide  of  tin,  and  rendered 
fusible  by  the  oxide  of  lead.  All  glazes  that  contain  lead  partici- 
pate in  the  properties  of  enamel.  Raw  glazes,  used  for  covering 
tender  porcelain,  are  of  this  nature.  The  colors  employed  in 


' 


, 

. 

. 


■ 


PORCELAIN. 


223 


painting  this  porcelain  are  those  which  serve  for  painting  in 
enamel.  They  require  less  flux  than  others,  because  the  surface 
to  which  they  are  applied  becomes  soft  enough  to  be  penetrated 
by  them.  Hard  porcelain,  identical  with  that  of  China  and  Sax- 
ony, has  two  kinds  of  colors  applied  to  it.  Those  of  the  first 
kind,  which  are  used  in  the  representation  of  different  objects,  are 
baked  in  a heat  much  below  that  necessary  for  baking  porcelain ; 
while  the  other  colors,  which  are  few  in  number,  must  be  exposed 
to  the  highest  degree  required  by  the  porcelain  itself.  The  glaze 
used  for  hard  porcelain  has  little  or  no  lead  in  its  composition. 
The  Sevres  manufactory,  and  some  few  in  England,  employ  felspar 
without  any  mixture  of  lead,  This  glaze,  when  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  the  glass  oven,  dilates,  and  its  pores  are  opened,  without 
becoming  soft,  so  that  the  colors  are  not  absorbed  by  it,  and  do 
not  undergo  those  changes  which  occur  when  they  are  applied  to 
soft  porcelain,  wdien,  by  mixing  with  the  body  of  the  enamel,  they 
become  faint  and  indistinct.  This  effect  is  much  increased,  when 
some  particular  colors  are  employed,  and  especially  the  reds  pro- 
duced from  iron,  which  are  exposed  to  the  destructive  action  of 
the  lead  that  is  contained  in  the  glaze. 

Painting  on  soft  porcelain  must,  for  this  reason,  be  several 
times  retouched  with  the  pencil,  in  order  to  give  to  it  the  distinct- 
ness and  brilliancy  which  follow  the  use  of  the  same  colors  on 
hard  porcelain,  so  that  a high  degree  of  ornament  is  seldom  or 
never  given  to  any  but  the  latter  description.  In  the  embellish- 
ment of  hard  porcelain,  these  retouchings  are  not  required,  except 
for  the  most  elaborate  specimens  of  the  art,  which  can,  by  such 
means,  however,  be  produced  with  the  most  admirable  degree  of 
perfection,  so  as  to  render  painting  on  porcelain  not  distinguish- 
able from  the  finest  productions  of  the  pictorial  art,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  body  upon  which  it  is  performed,  or  the  means  used 
for  bringing  out  the  colors.  Natural  objects,  landscapes,  por- 
traits, and  historical  pieces,  are  represented  with  all  the  truth,  as 
well  as  all  the  brilliancy  of  coloring,  of  similar  subjects  on  canvas. 

The  service  presented  by  the  King  of  Prussia  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  in  1816,  is  said  to  be  the  finest  specimen  of  Dresden 


224 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


porcelain  in  England.  Each  piece  is  exquisitely  painted,  and  the 
battles  represented,  and  all  the  subjects,  are  different. 

One  great  inconvenience  attending  the  repeated  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  the  oven  of  pieces  thus  retouched  is,  the  colors  are 
liable  to  peel  off  unless  the  greatest  care  has  been  used  in  their 
application.  This  defect  has  been  remedied  in  the  Sevres  works, 
by  introducing  a calcareous  flux  into  the  felsj:>ar  glaze,  which 
softens  it,  without  at  all  affecting  the  body  of  the  ware.  Soda 
and  potash  are  never  used  as  fluxes,  as  their  introduction  causes 
the  colors  to  scale ; the  reason  of  this  is,  they  become  volatile 
in  a great  heat,  and  abandon  the  color,  which  will  not  adhere  to 
the  glaze. 

The  liquid  which  serves  as  a vehicle  for  laying  on  the  colors, 
is  rubbed  with  them  on  a glass  palette,  till  the  whole  is  entirely 
combined.  Great  care  is  used  in  the  choice  and  management  of 
diluent  liquids,  which  must  always  be  sufficiently  volatile  to  be 
entirely  dissipated  in  the  heat  to  which  the  wares  are  afterwards 
exposed.  In  France  the  preference  is  given  to  oil  of  lavender  as 
a vehicle ; and  in  order  to  insure  the  proper  degree  of  fluidity, 
the  oil  is  divided  into  two  parts,  by  distillation ; that  which  first 
comes  out  being  the  most  volatile,  and  having  the  least  density, 
is  used  for  diluting  the  colors  when  they  become  too  thick ; and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  portion  that  remains  in  the  retort  having 
the  opposite  quality,  is  reserved  for  thickening  them  when  they 
run  too  freely.  Oil  of  turpentine,  which  has  been  some  time  in 
store,  is  more  generally  used  in  England,  and  is  said  to  answer 
the  purpose  better  than  any  other  volatile  fluid. 

The  European  porcelain  painters  are  not  confined  to  a limited 
palette, — scientific  investigation  having  brought  to  their  aid  a 
variety  of  beautiful  colors,  which  suffice  for  all  the  wTants  of  the 
artist  when  employed  in  transferring  the  most  elaborate  designs 
to  porcelain.  Purple  and  violet  are  procured  by  dissolving  gold 
in  aqua  regia,  and  immersing  a bar  of  pure  tin  in  the  solution. 
This  is  called  the  purple  of  Cassius,  and  a better  way  of  preparing 
the  precipitate  is,  to  dissolve  the  two  metals  separately,  and  then, 
by  bringing  the  two  solutions  together  in  different  proportions, 
various  shades  of  carmine,  violet,  and  purple  are  obtained.  These 


POKCELAIN. 


225 


three  shades  cannot  bear  exposure  to  the  full  heat  of  the  furnace. 
When  first  applied  on  the  porcelain,  the  precipitate  of  gold  is  of 
a dirty  violet  color,  but  a moderate  heat  changes  it  to  a beautiful 
purple. 

The  red  oxide  of  iron  is  prepared  by  the  united  action  of  fire 
and  nitric  acid.  The  color  is  beautiful,  but  less  brilliant  than  that 
produced  from  gold.  Shades  of  red,  deepening  from  rose  color, 
and  passing,  by  the  increased  action  of  heat,  to  brown,  are  ob- 
tained from  iron.  Various  shades  of  reddish  brown  are  obtained 
from  the  admixture  of  black  and  red  oxides  of  iron.  A very  per- 
manent red  color  is  obtained  by  calcining  the  oxide  of  iron  with 
double  its  own  weight  of  common  salt. 

Yellow  is  obtained  from  the  white  oxide  of  antimony,  mixed 
with  sand  and  oxide  of  lead,  the  latter  substance  serving  as  a flux 
to  the  others.  Oxide  of  tin  is  sometimes  added,  and  when  an 
approach  to  saffron  color  is  required,  red  oxide  of  iron  is  added. 
Straw  color  is  obtained  by  mixing  oxide  of  uranium  with  oxide 
of  lead,  and  another  yellow  color  from  the  chromate  of  lead. 
Naples  yellow  is  composed  of  ceruse  oxide  of  antimony,  and  sal- 
ammoniac,  calcined  together  at  a moderate  heat  for  three  hours. 
The  shade  is  raised  or  diminished  by  the  proportion  of  sal-am- 
moniac. 

Blue  is  obtained  from  the  pure  oxide  of  cobalt,  and  oxides  of 
tin  and  zinc,  added  in  different  proportions,  giving  different 
shades,  from  a deep  rich  color  to  a light  blue.  The  blue  of 
Sevres  owes  the  superiority  of  its  color  to  the  careful  preparation 
of  the  cobalt  for  that  purpose,  and  the  dull  color -which  appears 
upon  much  of  the  English  porcelain  and  earthenware,  arises  en- 
tirely from  the  admixture  of  the  oxide  of  iron,  arsenic,  copper 
and  lead  with  the  oxide  of  cobalt.  One  twenty-thousandth  of  a 
grain  of  oxide  of  cobalt  will  impart  a very  sensible  blue  tint. 
This  very  important  color  may  be  used  equally  well  on  ordinary 
earthenware,  baked  at  a low  heat,  and  on  porcelain,  which  re- 
quires an  elevated  temperature. 

Many  of  the  Egyptian  pastes  of  blue  and  green  have  been 
found,  upon  analysis,  to  be  covered  with  a color  derived  from 
copper,  and  the  same  metal  was  also  employed  by  the  Assyrian 


226 


ART-MANUFACTURES . 


potters,  to  impart  a color  to  their  earthenwares.  Green  is  still 
obtained  from  the  oxide  of  copper.  Various  shades  of  beautiful 
green  may  be  obtained  by  mixing,  in  different  proportions,  Prus- 
sian blue  with  chromate  of  lead.  A mixture  of  the  oxide  of  co- 
balt and  nickel  will  resist  a very  intense  heat,  producing  an  olive 
color.  A beautiful  green  color,  indestructible  in  the  heat  of  a 
porcelain  furnace,  is  obtained  from  the  oxide  of  chromium. 

Browns  we  have  already  made  mention  of,  under  the  head  of 
oxides  of  iron. 

Blacks  are  produced  by  combination,  for  there  is  no  metallic 
oxide  which  will  alone  give  a good  black.  The  oxide  of  man- 
ganese, brown  oxide  of  copper,  and  a small  proportion  of  oxide 
of  cobalt  will  do  it ; while  a gray  color  is  produced  by  omitting 
the  copper  and  increasing  the  quantity  of  flux.  Cobalt,  oxide  of 
copper,  and  umber  make  a good  black,  and  the  same  color  is  ob- 
tained from  oxides  of  copper  and  iron,  with  smalt. 

A brilliant  white  is  obtained  from  one  part  of  virgin  tin,  and 
two  parts  of  common  salt.  This  white  may  be  advantageously 
employed  in  painting  with  oil,  as  it  mixes  well  with  it.  When 
used  on  porcelain,  it  must  be  mixed  with  three  times  its  weight 
of  flux. 

By  making  different  mixtures  of  the  colors  here  described, 
every  tint  that  can  be  desired  may  be  obtained.  Great  judgment 
in  the  selection  of  materials,  care  in  their  preparation,  and  a 
knowledge  as  to  the  relative  proportions  wherein  they  should  be 
brought  together,  are  essential  to  success,  and,  as  well  as  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  science  of  chemistry,  are  all  highly  desirable. 
There  are  some  colors  which,  if  mixed  together,  would  mutually 
destroy  each  other,  and  in  the  exposure  of  metallic  oxides  to 
heat,  changes  ensue  which  result  not  from  the  nature  and  habi- 
tudes of  the  colors  themselves,  but  rather  from  the  influence  of 
the  bodies  to  which  they  are  applied. 

The  gold  used  in  gilding  porcelain  is  applied  in  a metallic 
state.  To  prepare  it  for  this  purpose,  it  is  dissolved  in  aqua 
regia ; the  acid  is  subsequently  dissipated  by  the  application  of 
heat,  and  the  gold  remains  in  a state  of  powder  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel.  This  powder  must  be  mixed  with  borax  and  gum 


POKCELAm. 


227 


water,  as  a vehicle  for  causing  it  to  flow  from  the  pencil  and  fix 
upon  the  ware,  and  when  it  is  baked  the  gilding  appears  void  of 
lustre.  It  is  then  burnished  with  either  agate  or  blood  stone. 
Gilding  in  the  Sevres  porcelain  is  much  less  abundant  than  in  the 
commercial  China  ware  of  France,  and  thus  it  gains  largely  in 
taste.  Porcelain,  if  over-gilt,  has  a metallic  appearance. 

Gilding  on  porcelain,  or  on  glass,  is  performed  either  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  a fluxing  material : the  gold  being  made 
to  adhere  to  the  surface  by  the  incipient  fusion  of  either  the 
glazing  or  the  porcelain,  or  of  the  surface  of  the  glass,  or  of  the 
flux  employed. 

Gold  is  used  for  this  purpose  sometimes  in  the  form  of  leaf- 
gold,  and  at  other  times  in  that  of  powder.  When  the  first  of 
these  two  methods  is  employed,  leaf-gold  must  be  ground  with 
honey,  or  with  gum  water  of  an  equal  consistency ; the  honey  or 
gum  is  then  washed  away,  and  the  gold  is  kept  for  use  in  papers 
or  in  shells.  The  use  of  these  latter  recipients  has  occasioned  the 
powder  to  be  known  among  artists  as  shell-gold. 

Gold  is  precipitated  from  its  solution  in  aqua  regia,  by  adding 
to  it  a watery  solution  of  green  vitriol,  or  strips  of  metallic  cop- 
per. When  the  powder  thus  obtained  is  to  be  used,  it  must  be 
mixed  with  gum  water  as  a vehicle.  When  it  is  intended  to  ap- 
ply leaf-gold  without  any  fluxing  material  to  the  body  of  the 
wares,  these  should  be  moistened  in  the  requisite  parts  with  a 
weak  solution  of  gum  water,  which  must  afterwards  be  allowed 
to  dry.  When  the  gold  is  applied,  the  porcelain  or  glass  may  be 
made  sufficiently  adhesive  by  breathing  on  it.  Japanese  gold 
size,  moistened  to  the  requisite  degree  with  oil  of  turpentine,  is 
sometimes  employed. 

The  next  and  last  process  is  the  burnishing.  This  is  intrusted 
to  female  hands.  The  implements  required  for  the  purpose  are,  a 
burnisher  of  agate  or  blood  stone,  some  white  lead,  a piece  of 
sheep-skin,  for  wiping  the  ware,  and  some  vinegar.  As  extreme 
cleanliness  is  indispensable,  the  person  engaged  in  burnishing  does 
not  even  touch  the  porcelain  or  her  implements,  but  interposes 
between  her  work  and  her  hands  a piece  of  clean  white  linen. 
With  her  hand  thus  covered,  she  applies  the  agate  burnisher 


228 


ART-MANUFACTTJEES . 


lightly  to  the  gilding,  following  all  the  ornaments,  and  never  rub- 
bing in  cross  directions,  lest  the  gilding  should  appear  scratched. 
After  having  rubbed  the  gilding  for  some  time  a little  vinegar  or 
white  lead  is  applied,  to  clean  the  surface.  This  is  removed  with 
a soft  linen  rag,  the  burnishing  is  recommenced  and  continued 
until  the  gilding  throughout  assumes  a satisfactory  appearance. 

Gold  and  silver  lustre-ware  is  commonly  of  an  inferior  quality. 
The  metallic  oxides  used  for  covering  these  vessels  are  intimately 
mixed  with  some  essential  oil,  and  then  brushed  entirely  over  the 
surface.  The  heat  of  the  enamelling  oven,  wdiich  dissipates  the 
oxygen,  restores  the  oxides  to  their  metallic  state,  but  with  dim- 
inution of  their  brilliancy.  The  oxide  of  platinum  is  used  for 
making  silver  lustre. 

Colors,  when  they  are  required  for  use,  should  be  first  pound- 
ed quickly  in  a mortar  made  of  either  porcelain,  agate,  or  glass, 
with  a pestle  of  the  same,  and  covered,  to  prevent  the  access  of 
dust.  They  must  afterwards  be  ground  on  a glass  palette,  and 
the  artist  who  decorates  porcelain  is  required  to  rub  his  colors 
with  as  much  nicety  as  a miniature  painter.  The  requisite  pro- 
portions of  volatile  oil  and  of  flux  are  added  and  ground  with  the 
colors  on  the  palette,  the  whole  having  been  carefully  weighed 
before  their  union.  They  are  then  applied  to  the  porcelain  by 
means  of  a sable  or  camel-hair  pencil. 

At  the  Sevres  manufactory,  primary  studies  for  the  composi- 
tion, lights  and  shades,  &c.,  are  made ; then  there  is  a drawing  in 
tempora  for  arranging  the  colors,  and  subsequently  an  elaborately 
finished  oil  painting  of  the  whole,  as  it  will  appear  when  complete, 
is  produced.  In  this  way  great  perfection  is  attained.  The  de- 
signs, many  of  which  we  have  introduced  in  these  pages,  are  high 
in  character  and  broad  in  treatment,  and  in  the  drawing  there  is 
a wonderful  degree  of  accuracy.  Each  theme  is  studied  thor- 
oughly, and  executed  with  a precision  and  force  indicative  of  a 
fixed  purpose,  and  a full  appreciation  of  all  that  is  required  to 
be  done. 

After  the  pieces  have  been  painted,  it  is  necessary  to  dry  the 
colors  by  evaporating  the  oil  used  with  them  as  a vehicle.  Then 
they  are  placed  in  the  enamelling  kilns,  which  are  in  form  like  a 


PORCELAIN. 


229 


chemist’s  muffle.  The  articles  are  piled  in  the  kiln  until  it  is  filled, 
when  the  mouth  is  closed  and  the  fire  applied.  The  heat  is  con- 
tinued for  eight  or  ten  hours,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  the 
colors  are  burnt  into  the  glaze. 

The  style  of  decoration  already  described  is  in  a great  meas- 
ure confined  to  the  most  costly  descriptions  of  porcelain.  Wares 
lower  in  price,  and  which  can  be  brought  into  more  general  use, 
undergo  a different  kind  of  embellishment.  A great  variety  of 
neatly  printed  patterns  are  transferred  to  their  surface  from  im- 
pressions previously  printed  on  paper. 

The  method  of  transferring  printed  designs  to  earthen  vessels 
may  be  thus  described : The  landscape  or  other  pattern  is  en- 
graved upon  copper,  and  the  color,  which  is  mixed  with  boiled 
linseed  oil,  is  laid  on  the  plate  in  the  same  manner  that  ink  is 
usually  applied  by  copper-plate  printers.  To  increase  the  fluidity 
of  the  oil,  the  plate  is  then  temporarily  placed  in  a stove.  When 
it  is  withdrawn  a sheet  of  damp  tissue  paper  is  laid  on  it,  and 
both  are  passed  through  the  press  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The 
paper,  wet  with  the  color,  is  then  delivered  to  a girl,  who  reduces 
its  size  by  cutting  away  the  blank  portions  surrounding  the  pat- 
tern, and  passes  it  to  another  girl,  by  whom  the  impression  is  ap- 
plied lightly  to  the  ware  when  the  latter  is  in  the  state  of  biscuit. 
A third  girl  is  next  employed,  who,  with  a piece  of  woollen  cloth, 
rolled  tightly  in  the  form  of  a cylinder,  rubs  the  paper  closely 
against  the  piece  in  order  to  press  the  color  sufficiently  into  its 
substance.  The  paper,  thus  rubbed,  is  left  adhering  to  the  article 
for  an  hour,  wdien  it  is  placed  in  a cistern  of  water,  so  that  the 
paper  may  become  soft  enough  to  peel  off  without  violence  to  the 
impression  the  biscuit  has  received  from  the  copper-plate. 

When  the  pieces  thus  printed  have  stood  a sufficiently  long 
time  to  become  dry,  they  are  placed  in  an  oven,  to  which  a gen- 
tle heat  is  applied,  in  order,  by  dissipating  the  oil,  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  glaze.  This  is,  of  course,  completely  transparent,  as 
otherwise  the  distinctness  of  the  pattern  would  be  impaired. 
The  glaze  is  vitrified  in  the  glass  oven  in  the  manner  already 
described. 

The  French  potters  employ  a sheet  of  glue,  rendered  flexible 


230 


ABT-MANUFACTUKES. 


and  of  the  consistency  of  leather,  to  transfer  the  design  from  the 
copper- plate  to  the  ware.  In  this  way  two  impressions  are  given 
to  the  ware  without  a fresh  application  of  the  glue  to  the  plate. 

Parian  statuary  biscuit  does  not  differ  materially  from  that 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  The  chemical  elements 
of  the  composition  are  essentially  alumina  (pure  clay),  silica  (pure 
flint),  and  an  alkali  (potash),  which,  by  the  action  of  the  intense 
heat  to  which  the  mass  is  exposed,  actually  agglutinates  so  as  to 

form  the  beautiful  body  which 
the  finest  figures  present,  the  per- 
fection of  which  is  still  more  ap- 
parent in  a fractured  portion. 
Every  manufacturer  employs  dif- 
ferent proportions  of  each  sub- 
stance, and  it  often  occurs  that 
some  material  peculiar  to  a cer- 
tain manufactory  marks  its  char- 
acter. 

The  materials  are  combined 
and  used  in  a liquid  state,  tech- 
nically called  “slip,”  about  the 
consistency  of  thick  cream.  It  is 
poured  into  the  moulds  forming 
the  figures  or  groups,  which,  be- 
ing made  of  plaster-of-Paris, 
rapidly  absorb  a portion  of  the 
moisture,  and  the  coating  imme- 
diately in  contact  with  the  mould, 
soon  becomes  of  a sufficient  thick- 
ness for  the  cast,  when  the  super- 
fluous slip  is  poured  back.  The 
cast  remains  in  the  mould  for 
some  time,  at  a high  tempera- 
ture, by  which  it  is  (through  the 
evaporation  that  has  taken  place),  reduced  to  a state  of  clay,  and 
sufficiently  firm  to  bear  its  own  weight  when  relieved  from  the 


PORCELAIN. 


231 


moulds,  which  are  then  opened,  and  the  different  portions  of  the 
subject  taken  out. 

Each  figure  requires  many  moulds ; the  head,  arms  and  hands, 
legs,  body,  parts  of  the  drapery,  when  introduced,  and  the  other 
details  of  the  subject,  are  generally  moulded  separately.  Often, 
upwards  of  forty  moulds,  and  these  of  several  divisions,  are  used 
for  one  group.  The  parts,  when  removed  from  the  moulds,  have 
to  be  repaired,  the  seams,  caused  by  the  junctures  of  the  mould, 
cleaned  off,  and  the  whole  put  together.  This  is  a process  re- 
quiring the  greatest  nicety  and  judgment,  the  fragile  nature  of 
the  material  in  its  present  state,  needing  considerable  practical 
knowledge  necessary  to  form  a perfect  union  of  the  different 
members,  and  they  must  also  be  so  disposed  as  to  be  in  strict  ac- 
cordance with  the  original  mould. 

Peculiar  care  is  required  in  putting  together  nude  figures,  in 
which  the  juncture  of  the  parts  generally  presents  a level  circular 
surface,  requiring  the  decision  of  an  educated  eye,  to  unite  them 
with  accuracy.  Surfaces  that  present  a marked  and  broken  out- 
line, which  will  fit  together  only  at  one  particular  point,  are  ex- 
empt from  this  difficulty.  The  parts  are  attached  together  by  a 
slip,  similar  to  that  used  in  casting.  The  delicate  effect  of  the 
light  and  open  drapery  sometimes  produced,  is  attained  by  dip- 
ping a piece  of  net  or  lace  (from  which  the  original  matter  is 
burnt  in  the  subsequent  firing),  in  this  slip,  and  applying  it  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  original  design. 

The  figures  or  groups  thus  put  together,  remain  two  or  three 
days,  or  until  they  are  sufficiently  dry.  Each  figure  is  then  sup- 
ported by  props  made  of  the  same  materials,  placed  in  such  a po- 
sition as  to  bear  a portion  of  the  weight,  and  prevent  an  undue 
pressure,  that  might  cause  the  figure  to  sink  or  yield  in  the  firing. 
Each  end  of  the  prop  is  embedded  in  a coating  of  ground  flint, 
to  prevent  adhesion,  and  is  thus  easily  removed.  The  figure  is 
now  placed  in  the  oven  and  fired. 

The  operation  of  firing  occupies  from  sixty  to  seventy  hours. 
The  fires  are  then  withdrawn,  and  the  oven  allowed  to  cool,  and 
when  sufficiently  so,  the  figures  are  taken  out  and  the  seams 
rubbed  down.  Then  they  are  embedded  in  sand,  and  retired  at  a 


232 


AET-MANUFACTUEES. 


still  higher  temperature.  The  bedding  of  sand  is  preferred  in 
this  part  of  the  process  to  the  props,  as  it  more  equally  and  effect- 
ually supports  the  figure.  It  could  not  be  used  in  the  first  in- 
stance, when  the  figure  was  in  the  clay ; as,  by  resisting  the  con- 
traction, it  would  cause  it  to  be  shattered  to  pieces.  It  is  even 
sometimes  necessary  to  fire  casts  three  times,  a peculiar  degree 
of  heat  being  required  to  produce  the  extreme  beauty  of  surface 
which  the  finest  specimens  present. 

The  total  contraction  of  figures,  from  the  mould  to  the  finished 
state,  is  one-fourth.  The  contraction  of  the  slip  with  which  the 
mould  is  first  charged,  is  one-sixteenth ; it  contracts  another  six- 
teenth in  the  process  of  drying  for  the  oven,  and  one-eiglith  in 
the  process  of  vitrification ; so  that  a model  two  feet  high  will 
produce  a fired  cast  of  only  eighteen  inches. 

Now  let  it  be  considered  that  this  contraction  should  extend 
in  an  equal  degree  through  every  portion  of  the  subject,  to  insure 
a perfect  work,  and  it  will  be  immediately  apparent  that  there  is 
considerable  difficulty  to  be  overcome  in  its  production,  particu- 
larly to  achieve  such  a result  as  would  satisfy  the  requirements  of 

a highly  cultivated  taste.  Still,  diffi- 
cult as  it  may  be,  and  is,  with  judgment 
in  the  selection  of  the  subjects,  and 
practical  knowledge  brought  to  bear  in 
the  execution,  there  is  no  improbability 
in  the  conclusion  that  a faithful  realiza- 
tion of  the  beauties  of  the  finest  work 
of  art  may  be  produced.  Already  we 
have  given  several  illustrations  of  the 
beautiful  works  that  are  readily  pro- 
duced at  some  of  the  leading  manu- 
factories in  England.  The  beautiful 
statuette  of  Psyche,  on  page  230,  is 
after  the  design  of  Carrier.  The  group 
opposite  represents  a young  girl  listen- 
ing to  Cupid,  and  is  called  “ The  First 
Whisper  of  Love.”  And  the  same  beautiful  material  is  applied  to 
many  objects  of  daily  use,  which,  in  the  hand  of  the  modeller, 


[FIRST  WHISPER  OF  LOVE — PARIAN. 


52 


-/ 


■ 


■ 


ijfU 

£ 

. 

.■■'/.  -r.L''.  ■'  ■ -4  X.  . hi  • " • ~ 


■ ' " . . • ■ -;r;  r ; 

• ’:V  . . 


mmm 


PORCELAIN. 


233 


have  been  made  to  take  shapes  of  beauty  that  entitle  them  to  our 
attention.  Pitchers,  tea-sets,  vases — a little  one,  composed  of  the 
leaves  and  flowers  of  the  lily  of  the  valley,  we  here  introduce. 
Fruit  dishes,  centre  pieces,  many  of  them  of  great  beauty ; brack- 
ets, pedestals,  and  other  articles  of  like  description,  and  which 
admit  of  a fine  display  of  taste  in  their  adornment,  are  made 
equally  attractive. 

And  before  leaving  the  subject  of  Parian  statuary  porcelain, 
we  should  here  speak  of  its  rival  for  popular  favor,  known  as 
Fictile  ivory,  now  so  popular,  and  the  discovery  of  which  has 
enabled  the  inventor  to  place  within  the  reach  of  all,  admirable 
copies  of  the  most  beautiful  ivory  carvings,  the  originals  of  which, 
from  their  rarity  and  expensive  qualities,  are  placed  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  but  the  wealthy.  This  preparation  is  composed  of 
the  finest  plaster-ofParis,  which,  by  nice  manipulation,  is  made 
to  absorb  stearine,  or  some  similar  agent.  When  the  requisite 
cast  is  taken,  the  imitation  of  ivory  is  most  perfect. 

All  the  materials  for  making  articles  of  crockery,  China,  and 
glass  ware,  as  good  as  the  finest  English  wares,  are  to  be  had  in 
this  country ; but  the  high  price  of  labor  prevents  the  manufac- 
ture except  to  a very  limited  extent.  The  pottery  of  the  Earth- 
enware Manufacturing  Co.,  at  East  Boston,  has  been  in  operation 
four  years,  and  their  business  the  past  year  amounted  to  forty 
thousand  dollars.  And  at  Bennington,  Vt.,  the  United  States 
Pottery  is  producing  works  that  reflect  the  highest  credit  on  the 
manufacturers.  A specimen,  in  the  form  of  a fruit  dish,  may  be 
found  among  our  illustrations. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

CHINESE  METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  PORCELAIN. 

fPIIE  Chinese  call  one  of  the  principal  ingredients  of  their  porce- 
P lain  “kaolin,”  to  which  we  have  frequently  alluded  in  our 
remarks  on  the  European  process  of  manufacturing ; the  other 
ingredient  is  called  by  them  “ pe-tun-tse.”  The  first  is  the  infusi- 
ble portion,  and  is  found  mixed  with  a shining  substance,  resem- 
bling mica.  The  second,  the  fusible,  is  of  a brilliant  white,  ex- 
ceedingly fine  in  the  grain,  and  soft  to  the  touch.  The  kaolin 
constitutes  the  body,  or  “ bone,”  as  it  is  called,  and  the  pe-tun-tse 
the  transparent  glaze,  for  which  the  ware  is  celebrated.  They 
are  both  found  in  mines  or  quarries  situated  between  twenty  and 
thirty  leagues  from  King-te-tching,  where,  from  the  earliest  ages, 
the  manufacture  has  been  carried  on.  These  earths  are  supposed 
to  improve  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are 
left  in  heaps,  surrounded  by  ditches  to  draw  the  water  off  from 
them,  and  the  potter  turns  to  account  the  materials  gathered  by 
his  grandfather. 

The  pe-tun-tse  is  dug  out  of  the  solid  rock  in  the  form  of 
squares,  and  about  the  size  of  common  bricks.  In  this  state  it  is 
taken  to  the  manufactory  in  small  vessels,  and  there  it  is  ground 
to  a powder  by  means  of  hammers.  When  it  is  almost  impalpa- 
ble it  is  thrown  into  a vessel  of  water,  and  stirred  briskly  about. 
After  the  water  has  rested  for  a time,  a white  substance,  in  the 


CHINESE  METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  PORCELAIN. 


235 


form  of  a scum,  rises  to  the  surface  to  the  thickness  of  two  or 
three  inches.  This  is  skimmed  off  and  placed  in  another  vessel, 
and  the  process  continued  till  nothing  remains  hut  the  coarser 
particles,  which  are  put  under  the  hammer  for  a fresh  grinding. 
When  the  water  in  the  second  vessel  becomes  quite  clear,  it  is 
poured  off,  and  the  sediment  at  the  bottom,  in  the  form  of  paste, 
is  taken  out,  and  is  ready  for  combination  with  the  kaolin.  This 
part  of  the  work  is  performed  by  those  who  confine  their  atten- 
tion exclusively  to  it ; and  the  pe-tun-tse,  thus  prepared,  is  sold 
to  the  porcelain  makers,  in  square  and  dry  blocks,  at  so  much  a 
hundred,  who  have  to  test  them  first,  to  guard  against  buying 
the  foreign  matter  artificially  mixed  with  the  paste. 

The  “ bone  ” of  the  porcelain  is  made  of  kaolin,  which  is  much 
softer  than  the  pe-tun-tse  when  dug  from  the  quarry,  and  is  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way,  but  with  much  less  labor.  Kaolin  is 
known,  from  the  particles  of  mica  which  it  contains,  to  have  its 
origin  in  felspar,  or  graphic  granite.  It  is  infusible  with  the  heat 
of  a porcelain  furnace,  even  in  China,  the  degree  of  which  must 
be  tremendous,  as  some  of  the  materials  employed  in  their  glazes 
could  not  be  vitrified  at  a lower  temperature  than  would  suffice 
to  fuse  Cornish  granite.  It  is  the  kaolin  that  gives  strength  and 
body  to  the  porcelain,  and,  consequently,  this,  or  some  substance 
possessing  the  same  quality,  forms  an  indispensable  ingredient  in 
its  composition.  It  is  related  of  some  Europeans,  that  having 
privately  obtained  some  blocks  of  pe-tun-tse  in  China,  and  con- 
veyed them  to  their  own  country,  they  vainly  endeavored  to  con- 
vert them  into  porcelain,  which,  becoming  known  to  some  of  the 
Chinese,  they  deridingly  remarked,  “that  certainly  the  Euro- 
peans must  be  a wonderful  people,  to  go  about  to  make  a body 
whose  flesh  wras  to  sustain  itself  without  bones.” 

The  two  substances  described  as  oil  or  varnish  are  procured, 
one  from  a combination  of  pe-tun-tse  with  another  mineral  sub- 
stance, and  the  other  from  lime.  In  the  preparation  of  the  first 
of  these,  such  stones  are  selected  as  have  the  whitest  appearance. 
These  undergo  the  same  process  of  washing  and  grinding  as  have 
already  been  described,  except  that  the  creamy  substance,  when 
it  has  subsided  in  the  second  vessel,  is  not  all  put  into  moulds, 


236 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


but  only  the  upper  and  finer  stratum  is  gathered  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  varnish.  To  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  sub- 
stance thus  separated,  one  pound  of  a mineral  called  she-kao, 
which  is  a kind  of  gypsum,  is  added.  This  stone,  which  resem- 
bles alum  in  its  appearance,  is  first  raised  in  a furnace  to  a red 
heat,  and  then  reduced,  by  pounding  and  rubbing  in  a mortar, 
to  a very  fine  powder,  in  which  state  its  union  with  the  purified 
pe-tun-tse  is  effected,  the  consistency  of  the  compound  being  per- 
fectly fluid. 

The  preparation  of  what  is  called  “ oil  of  lime,”  the  fourth 
ingredient  required,  is  thus  managed : Lumps  of  quicklime  are 
first  sprinkled  with  water  and  reduced  to  a powder ; upon  this  a 
bed  of  dried  fern  is  placed ; then  another  layer  of  lime,  covered 
again  with  fern ; and  so  on,  alternately,  until  the  pile  has  reached 
a moderate  height ; then  fire  is  applied,  and  when  the  whole  of 
the  fern  is  consumed,  the  ashes  are  collected  and  strewn  upon 
fresh  beds  of  fern,  which  are  again  fired,  and  this  burning  process 
is  repeated  five,  six,  or  more  times  successively — it  being  held 
that  the  more  frequently  the  ashes  are  burnt,  the  better  is  the 
quality  of  the  product.  Some  ancient  Chinese  manuscripts  affirm 
that,  instead  of  fern,  the  wood  of  a kind  of  medlar  tree  was  an- 
ciently used ; and  that  the  quality  of  the  porcelain  was,  in  con- 
sequence, more  beautiful.  This  wood  has  now  become  too  scarce 
to  be  employed  for  that  purpose.  The  lime  and  fern  ashes  are 
next  thrown  together  into  a vessel  of  water,  and  she-kao  is  added 
in  the  same  proportion  as  to  the  creamy  dilution  of  pe-tun-tse. 
The  she-kao  dissolves ; and  the  solid  matter  being  separated  from 
the  water  by  subsidence,  and  removed  in  a tolerably  fluid  state, 
forms  what  the  Chinese  call  the  oil  of  lime,  to  the  agency  of  which 
they  attribute  all  the  lustrous  appearance  of  their  porcelain. 
Lime,  when  uncombined,  is  infusible,  except  at  a very  intense  de- 
gree of  heat,  and  the  fern  ashes  thus  added  are  essential,  acting 
as  a flux,  and  promoting  the  fusion  of  the  glaze  in  the  furnace. 
In  mixing  these  two  varnishes  together,  only  one  measure  of  the 
oil  of  lime  is  added  to  ten  measures  of  that  of  pe-tun-tse,  care 
being  taken  that  the  consistency  of  both  is  equal. 

When  a brighter  and  finer  hue  than  can  be  procured  from 


CHINESE  METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  PORCELAIN.  237 


these  oils  or  varnishes  is  needed,  a mixture  of  the  following  kind 
is  prepared : The  shores  of  some  of  their  rivers  furnish  a species 
of  agate,  which  is  without  veins  and  nearly  transparent,  so  that  it 
approaches  the  nature  of  crystal.  This  stone  is  calcined  to  a 
wrhite  powder,  and  then  ground  as  fine  as  possible.  To  every 
ounce  of  this  they  add  two  ounces  of  white  lead  (ceruse),  also  a 
fine  powder,  and  after  these  are  mixed  with  the  varnish,  the 
whole  is  laid  on  the  porcelain  the  same  way  as  other  colors,  and 
it  is  used  as  the  basis  of  a variety  of  colors.  Their  green,  which 
is  prepared  from  the  oxide  of  copper,  is  said  to  be  converted 
into  a beautiful  violet  color  by  admixture  with  the  white  just  de- 
scribed. Such  a change  as  this  must,  of  course,  be  the  effect  of 
chemical  action  promoted  by  the  heat  of  the  furnace.  The  mere 
mechanical  mixture  of  white  and  green  would  only  reduce  the 
depth  of  its  shade.  Their  yellow  is  said  to  result  from  the  mix- 
ture, in  due  proportions,  of  this  white  with  copperas. 

The  purification  of  the  two  earths  having  been  completed  by 
the  processes  already  described,  they  are  united  in  the  requisite 
proportions,  and  these  depend  upon  the  quality  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  give  to  the  porcelain.  For  the  finest  kind  they  mix  the 
kaolin  and  pe-tun-tse  in  equal  quantities,  and  diminish  the  pro- 
portion of  the  former  according  as  a coarser  kind  of  ware  is  re- 
quired ; but  for  the  very  coarsest  descriptions,  the  kaolin  never 
forms  less  than  one-fourth  the  mass. 

The  most  laborious  part  of  the  whole  operation  of  the  factory 
is  that  of  intimately  kneading  and  working  the  earths  together,  so 
as  to  form  the  tivo  into  one  homogeneous  mass.  This  is  per- 
formed in  pits,  which  are  paved  and  cemented,  wherein  the  work- 
men continually  trample  upon  the  paste,  bringing  together  fresh 
portions  by  turning  it  over ; and  this  work  is  continued  without 
intermission,  one  set  of  workmen  relieving  another  at  intervals, 
as  each  becomes  fatigued  by  the  labor,  until  the  mass  is  thought 
to  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  has  been  brought  to  a consistency 
proper  for  being  moulded  by  the  potter.  The  mixture  is  then 
removed  from  the  pit,  divided  into  small  portions,  and  kneaded 
by  hand  upon  large  slates  prepared  for  the  purpose.  Too  much 
careful  industry  can  hardly  be  exercised  in  this  operation.  If  the 


238 


AET-MANUFACTUEES. 


smallest  drop  of  water  or  globule  of  air  be  left  remaining  in  any 
portion  of  the  mass,  the  article  which  contains  that  portion  will 
infallibly  be  spoiled  by  the  expansion  of  the  fluid  in  the  oven. 
The  smallest  grain  of  sand,  or  even  a single  hair,  left  in  the  paste, 
would  be  equally  prejudicial,  occasioning  the  porcelain  to  run,  or 
crack,  or  warp  in  the  baking. 

The  pieces  are  fashioned  by  the  Chinese  workmen  in  a man- 
ner similar  to  that  adopted  in  the  European  potteries,  and  which 
has  already  been  described. 

Pieces  of  multiform  shape  are  made  in  several  portions  or  di- 
visions, which  are  brought  together  when  used.  They  are  made 
of  yellow  unctuous  earth,  which  recurs  abundantly  in  quarries 
near  to  the  great  porcelain  manufactory  of  the  empire,  and  its 
preparation  by  kneading  and  beating  is  very  similar  to  that  be- 
stowed on  the  porcelain  earths.  When  made  and  used  with  care, 
the  moulds  last  for  a long  time.  The  Chinese  workmen  are  not 
content  with  the  work  as  delivered  from  the  moulds,  but  uni- 
formly finish  the  article  by  hand,  using  a variety  of  chisels  and 
other  tools  to  touch  up  the  various  lines  and  forms  given  by 
the  mould,  as  well  as  to  supply  its  proper  deficiencies ; so  that 
the  potter  executes,  in  some  sort,  the  art  of  the  sculptor.  In 
works  where  different  objects  appear  in  relievo,  these  are  made 
separately,  and  added  in  the  way  commonly  used  in  other  pot- 
teries. 

Very  large  pieces  of  porcelain  are  made  at  King-te-ching. 
These  are  sometimes  of  such  magnitude  that  they  must  first  be 
formed  in  two,  three,  or  more  sections,  each  one  of  which  re- 
quires to  be  supported  during  its  formation  by  three  or  more 
men.  When  the  different  portions  are  sufficiently  dry,  they  are 
united  with  slip,  as  already  described,  and  the  seams  are  smoothed 
and  polished  with  an  iron  instrument,  so  that,  upon  their  being 
afterwards  covered  with  varnish,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  discern 
the  points  of  junction. 

The  labor  in  the  Chinese  potteries  is  divided  among  a great 
number  of  hands,  and  this  is  the  case  with  every  article  made, 
the  most  common  description  of  tea-cup.  The  potter  has  the 
management  of  the  wheel,  and  under  his  hand  the  cup  assumes 


CHINESE  METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  PORCELAIN. 


239 


its  form,  height,  and  diameter.  It  is  then  passed  to  a second 
workman,  who  fits  it  to  its  base.  From  him  it  passes  to  another 
workman,  who,  by  means  of  a mould  placed  on  a kind  of  lathe, 
corrects  the  imperfections  of  its  shape.  A fourth  man,  by  the  aid 
of  a chisel,  corrects  the  inequalities  and  unevenness  of  the  edges, 
and  pares  the  cup  to  a substance  which  renders  it  sufficiently 
transparent.  In  this  operation  he  has  frequent  recourse  to  water, 
in  order,  by  moistening,  to  prevent  the  cracking  or  breaking  of 
the  cup.  A fifth  workman  then  smooths  the  inside  by  turning  it 
gently  on  a mould.  Considerable  care  is  required  in  this  stage 
to  prevent  any  warping  or  the  formation  of  any  cavity  in  the  cup. 
Other  men  then,  according  to  the  description  of  cup  to  be  pro- 
duced, add  either  the  handk  or  some  ornament  in  relievo,  or 
make  sunken  impressions.  The  operation  that  immediately  pre- 
cedes the  first  baking  of  the  cup  is  that  of  rounding  and  hollowing 
the  inside  of  its  foot,  which  is  performed  with  a chisel. 


By  this  division  of  labor  the  work  is  found  to  proceed  with 
greater  regularity  and  rapidity ; but  there  is  no  improvement  in 
the  forms  or  ornaments  employed,  and  the  same  stereotype  shapes 
have  been  repeated  for  generations,  without  the  least  modification 
or  change.  Their  colors  are  exceedingly  lively  and  brilliant,  so 
that  European  artists  have  found  it  a diflicult  task  to  vie  with 
them  in  this  respect ; but  they  are  entirely  ignorant  of  perspec- 
tive, neither  have  they  a knowledge  of  the  human  figure,  so  that 
their  drawings  are  so  many  failures.  In  painting  on  porcelain, 


240 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


one  artist  only  forms  colored  circles  about  tbe  edges ; another 
traces  flowers,  which  a third  paints ; a fourth  delineates  nothing 
but  mountains ; a fifth  describes  water ; a sixth  traces  the  outline 
of  birds,  which  a seventh  fills  up  with  colors.  Other  artists  trace 
and  color  animals ; others  again  perform  the  same  task  with  the 
human  figure,  and  in  this  way  every  object  of  art  and  nature 
formed  upon  their  porcelain  is  the  work  of  a particular  artist,  who 
does  not  attempt  the  delineation  of  any  other  subject.  Improve- 
ment cannot  be  expected  with  such  a method  of  cramping  genius 
within  so  narrow  a compass. 

The  porcelain  first  made  by  the  Chinese  was  of  a pure  white,  and 
obtained  the  name  of  “the  precious  jewels  of  jao-tcheou.”  Blue 
was  the  first  color  with  which  they  ornamented  pottery,  but  the 
employment  of  all  other  colors  very  speedily  followed  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  one.  The  painting  of  porcelain  with  blue  flowers  is  di- 
vided into  four  epochs,  all  embracing  a period  between  1426  and 
1619;  but  the  employment  of  blue  in  painting  on  porcelain  in 
China  is  of  greater  antiquity.  The  color  is  produced  from  a 
mineral  that  abounds  in  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire.  In  its 
native  state  it  is  of  a blackish- yellow  color,  but  after  it  is  washed 
and  roasted  in  a porcelain  vessel,  it  is  ready  for  the  manufactu- 
rer’s use.  There  are  two  ways  of  employing  it.  The  first  is  to 
dip  the  vessel  into  it  when  the  powder  has  been  moistened  with 
water,  and  the  second  is  to  apply  the  powder  dry,  by  blowing 
through  a tube.  Then  the  glazing  is  applied.  Besides  the  na- 
tive blue,  the  Chinese  use  cobalt  for  a fine  color,  which  they  re- 
ceive from  Europe.  All  their  colors  used  for  painting  are  diluted, 
either  with  a solution  of  mastic,  with  animal  size,  or  with  pure 
water.  The  first  causes  the  color  to  flow  freely ; the  second  is 
useful  in  retouching,  while  water  is  employed  where  the  colors 
are  thickest,  and  also  for  filling  in. 

The  colors  should  be  capable  of  fixing  themselves  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  porcelain  firmly,  and  of  acquiring  at  the  same  time,  by 
fusion,  the  glaze,  which  is  one  of  the  indispensable  conditions  of  the 
brilliancy  of  this  kind  of  painting.  They  are  all  produced,  as  has 
already  been  stated  in  treating  of  European  porcelain  manufac- 
tures, by  mixing  either  an  oxide,  or  a composition  of  different 


CHINESE  METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  PORCELAIN. 


241 


metallic  oxides,  with  a vitreous  flux,  the  composition  of  which 
varies  with  the  nature  of  the  colors  to  he  developed.  The  colors 
are  generally  obtained  by  mixing  together  three  parts  of  the  flux 
with  one  part  of  the  metallic  oxide.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case 
of  cobalt,  it  is  necessary  that  the  oxides  and  the  flux  should 
be  frittered  before  being  used.  Sometimes  they  are  only  mixed 
together,  and  used  as  pigments,  without  being  frittered  or  cal- 
ciued. 

In  Europe  it  is  considered  especially  requisite  that  these  colors 
should  all  melt  at  the  same  time,  and  present,  after  the  firing,  a 
sufficient  and  uniform  glaze.  The  colors  of  the  Chinese  paintings 
do  not  fulfil  these  conditions ; some  are  glazed  and  are  very  bril- 
liant, while  others  are  dull ; some  are  flat,  others  are  raised  above 
the  surface.  And  besides  the  great  simplicity  in  design  and  lack 
of  an  artistic  element,  the  general  characteristic  of  the  Chinese 
colors  is,  that  the  flux,  which  is  not  distinct  from  the  pigment, 
is  always  composed  of  silica,  oxide  of  lead,  and  a greater  or  less 
quantity  of  alkali.  The  flux  holds  in  solution  a very  small  portion 
of  coloring  matter.  The  coloring  matters  are  similar  to  those 
already  described  for  painting  on  porcelain. 

Besides  the  white  porcelain  already  referred  to,  there  is  a 
black  porcelain,  ornamented  with  gold,  and  known  under  the 
name  of  umiam,  which  is  much  esteemed  in  the  East.  The  black 
is  produced  by  mixing  three  drachms  of  deep  blue  with  seven 
drachms  of  varnish,  which  they  call  the  oil  of  stone.  The  black 
thus  prepared  is  laid  on  when  the  porcelain  is  first  dried,  and 
when  the  black  is  also  thoroughly  dried  the  vessel  is  baked.  The 
gold  is  then  laid  on,  and  the  piece  is  subjected  to  another  baking 
in  a furnace  peculiarly  constructed  for  that  purpose.  The  gold 
is  ground  in  water  to  a very  fine  powder,  and  when  it  has  been 
very  gradually  dried  in  the  shade,  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of 
wThite  lead  is  added,  the  mixture  is  incorporated  with  gum  water, 
and  laid  on  in  the  same  manner  as  colors  are  applied. 

Another  kind  of  porcelain,  which  is  in  much  repute  with  the 
Chinese,  is  called  tsou-tchi.  This  has  the  appearance  of  having 
been  broken,  and  the  fractured  edges  brought  together  and  ce- 

I O o o 

mented,  and  then  covered  with  the  varnish  originally  used.  This 

II 


242 


AET-MANUEACTUEES. 


effect  is  produced  through  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  varnish  em- 
ployed, which  never  spreads  evenly,  hut  has  a tendency  when  in 
fusion  to  run  into  veins  and  ridges  of  various  and  uncertain  forms. 
The  varnish  is  made  from  a sort  of  agate  stone,  reduced  by  cal- 
cination to  a white  powder,  which,  after  being  ground  in  a mor- 
tar, is  carefully  washed,  and  used  when  of  the  consistency  of  cream. 

Another  kind  of  porcelain,  much  esteemed  by  the  same  peo- 
ple, is  called  kia-tsing , which  signifies  “ pressed  azure.”  Former- 
ly it  was  produced  readily,  but  the  boldest  workmen  rarely  now 
attempt  it.  In  vessels  of  this  description  the  colors  only  appear 
when  it  is  filled  with  some  liquid.  The  manner  of  making  porce- 
lain, so  as  to  produce  this  effect,  is  as  follows : The  cup  is  made 
very  thin,  and  after  having  been  once  baked,  the  colors  are  ap- 
plied in  the  required  form,  on  the  inner  surface.  When  dry,  a 
coating  of  porcelain  earth,  the  same  as  that  which  composes  the 
cup,  must  be  laid  on  the  inside,  to  be  followed  by  a coat  of  var- 
nish, so  that  the  colors  are  enclosed  between  the  two  coats  or 
bodies  of  the  ware.  The  outside,  already  very  thin,  is  then 
ground  down  almost  to  the  painted  figures,  which  are  thus  made 
to  appear  externally,  when  they  must  be  covered  anew  with  a 
coat  of  varnish,  so  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible  from  the  outside 
till  the  vessel  is  filled  with  liquid,  which  acts  as  a kind  of  foil 
and  throws  out  the  figures,  which  would  otherwise  remain  ob- 
scure. 

Another  admired  art  among  this  people  is,  that  of  producing 
the  semblance  of  various  figures  upon  pure  white  porcelain,  whose 
surfaces  are  yet  entirely  smooth.  A vessel  is  fashioned  extremely 
thin,  out  of  the  best  materials,  and  polished  inside  and  out;  a 
stamp,  cut  with  the  requisite  figures  in  relief,  is  pressed  upon  the 
inner  surface  of  the  unbaked  vessel,  over  which  a coat  of  the 
finest  white  varnish  must  next  be  applied,  which  fills  up  the  cavi- 
ties made  by  the  stamp,  and  the  smoothness  of  the  inner  surface 
is  thus  restored.  When  the  ware  is  baked,  the  varying  thick- 
nesses of  the  more  opaque  varnish  will  be  apparent  through  the 
sides  of  the  cup,  and  the  whole  of  the  figures  will  then  be  seen, 
as  finely  and  accurately  traced  as  if  painted  on  the  outside. 

The  porcelain  transparencies,  now  so  common  in  this  country, 


CHINESE  METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  PORCELAIN. 


243 


and  which  are  so  much  admired,  come  from  the  Berlin  Porcelain 
Manufactory. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  manufacturers  of  King-te-ching, 
in  applying  the  varnish,  vary  with  the  different  qualities  of  the 
ware  under  operation.  For  very  fine  and  thin  porcelain  two 
exceedingly  thin  coatings  are  very  carefully  applied,  and  some 
dexterity  is  required  both  in  regard  to  the  quantity  laid  on,  and 
the  equal  manner  of  its  application.  To  pieces  of  inferior  quality, 
as  much  varnish  is  applied  in  one  coating  as  is  comprised  in  the 
two  layers  just  mentioned.  The  foot  of  the  vessel  is  never  prop- 
erly formed  until  this  stage  of  the  manufacture,  and  after  the 
painting  and  varnishing  have  been  completed,  when  this  part  is 
finished  on  the  wheel,  and  varnished  likewise,  the  work  is  fit  to 
be  placed  in  the  oven. 

Several  reasons  are  assigned  for  the  high  price  of  Chinese 
porcelain.  One  of  these  is,  that  owing  to  their  very  unscientific 
manner  of  conducting  the  baking  process,  it  rarely  happens  that 
some,  and  frequently  a very  considerable  portion,  is  not  spoiled 
by  unequal  or  excessive  heat,  which,  in  either  case,  would  con- 
vert it  into  a deformed  and  shapeless  mass.  Another  reason  for 
dearness  is,  the  constantly  diminishing  supply  of  the  materials 
used,  and  more  especially  of  fuel,  which  becomes  very  expensive. 
It  is  added,  that  as  those  pieces  which  are  prepared  for  the  mar- 
kets of  Europe  are  of  patterns  not  acceptable  to  the  taste  ofliome 
consumers,  and  as  the  factors  invariably  reject  every  article  which 
exhibits  the  slightest  defect,  either  in  form  or  color,  the  juices 
paid  to  the  manufacturer  for  such  as  are  accepted,  must  be  suffi- 
ciently high  to  include  the  cost  of  those  rejected.'  But  notwith- 
standing these  circumstances,  the  prices  at  which  porcelain  is 
now  furnished  in  China  are  materially  less  than  those  demanded 
in  ancient  times,  when,  we  are  informed,  a hundred  crowns  were 
given  for  a single  urn  at  the  seat  of  manufacture.  The  emperor 
monopolizes  the  finest  specimens  of  porcelain  manufactured  in  his 
dominions,  and  it  has  hence  been  asserted,  that  none  of  the  wares 
which  have  ever  found  their  wray  to  Europe  give  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  perfection  to  which  the  Chinese  have  attained  in  this 
manufacture. 


244 


ART-MAINTTFACTUKES. 


The  porcelain  tower,  as  it  was  termed,  erected  at  Nankin, 
offered  proof  sufficient  of  the  very  durable  nature  of  their  manu- 
factures. This  building,  of  an  octagonal  shape,  was  of  nine 
stories,  and  very  nearly  three  hundred  feet  high.  The  material 
of  which  it  was  covered,  according  to  the  account  given  by  the 
few  travellers  who  have  seen  it,  was  a fine  white  tile,  which,  being 
painted  in  various  colors,  had  the  appearance  of  porcelain ; while 
the  whole  was  so  artfully  joined  together  as  to  appear  like  one 
entire  piece.  It  contained  numerous  galleries,  which  were  filled 
with  images,  and  set  around  with  bells,  which  jingled  when  agi- 
tated by  the  wind.  On  the  top  there  was  a large  ball,  in  the 
shape  of  a pineapple,  of  which  the  Chinese  boasted  as  consisting 
of  solid  gold.  Although  this  singular  and  beautiful  edifice  was 
erected  more  than  four  hundred  years  ago,  it  withstood  all  the 
alternations  of  the  seasons  and  every  variety  of  weather,  without 
the  slightest  appearance  of  deterioration,  and  it  was  but  recently 
that  it  was  destroyed  by  some  of  the  inhabitants  who  are  dis- 
tracted by  a civil  war. 


YASES,  ETC.,  IN  TERRA  COTTA, 


p.  245. 


CHAPTER  XT. 

TERRA  COTTA. 

HHERRA  COTTA— literally  baked  clay — lias  been  in  use  from  the 
^ earliest  ages,  and  is  employed  alike  by  civilized  and  uncivil- 
ized nations.  We  find  it  in  the  debris  of  Grecian  cities,  amid  the 
heaps  of  ruins  of  those  of  ancient  Egypt,  and  beneath  those  of 
Aztec  and  Mexican  cities.  Innumerable  specimens  have  been 
brought  to  light  in  such  places,  some  of  them  bearing  unmistak- 
able evidence  of  having  been  dried  in  the  sun,  the  only  mode  of 
hardening  tiles  in  the  earliest  ages ; others  have  been  baked,  and 
again  samples  that  were  evidently  colored  after  the  baking,  and 
even  richly  gilded,  have  been  exhumed.  The  Chaldeans  were  in 
the  habit  of  interring  their  dead  in  coffins  of  baked  clay,  covered 
with  green  glaze,  and  embossed  with  figures  of  warriors  dressed 
in  a short  tunic,  and  long  under-garments,  a sword  by  their  side, 
their  arms  resting  on  their  hips,  and  their  legs  apart.  Ornaments 
of  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  glass,  &c.,  have  been  found  around 
these  receptacles  of  the  dead,  and  occasionally  inscriptions  of  a 
very  early  date. 

The  date  of  the  original  production  of  Etruscan  vases,  extant, 
is  from  the  second  to  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Their 
forms  bear  conclusive  evidence  of  the  grace  and  beauty  with 
wdiich  a refined  and  cultivated  intelligence  can  mould  even  the 
objects  which  minister  to  our  daily  wants  and  comfort.  Opposite 
we  give  a design  for  a circular  plateau,  designed  for  a table  top, 
in  the  style  of  the  Etruscan. 


246 


AUT-M  ANUFA  CTUKES . 


Nearly  all  the  ancient  specimens  of  pottery,  and  those  of  the 
middle  ages,  are  earthenware,  and  it  was  not  until  the  introduc- 
tion of  flint  and  felspar  into  the  materials  of  the  potter,  that  any 
true  stoneware  could  be  said  to  have  been  produced.  From  the 
time  of  the  Roman  rule  in  Europe,  until  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  pottery,  as  an  art,  seems  to  have  attracted  but  little  at- 
tention. Its  first  influence  was  derived  from  Tuscany,  where  the 
sculptor,  Luca  Della  Robbia,  whose  works  present  the  closest  al- 
liance of  sculpture  with  pottery,  somewhere  about  1415-20,  em- 
ployed a stanniferous  glaze  as  a coating  to  his  terra  cotta ; and  it 
was  in  his  factory  that  the  designs  of  Raphael  were  copied,  and 
which  have  imparted  his  name  to  the  ware. 

Modern  terra  cotta  differs  from  articles  of  ancient  wares  of 
this  description,  in  that  it  is  much  more  durable.  The  finest  clays 
are  used,  and  these  must  be  free  from  the  oxide  of  iron.  The 
clay  is  combined  with  calcined  flints  and  crushed  pottery,  and 

baked  at  a tempera- 
ture little  below  fusion. 
When  the  materials 
are  good,  the  ware  is 
of  a rich  rose  color. 
The  French  have  an 
advantage  over  the 
English  manufacturer, 
in  the  possession  of  a 
clay  of  a beautiful 
tint,  which  they  call 
“kaolin  rose.”  It  is 
remarkable  for  its 
purity  and  extreme 
delicacy.  With  this 
they  are  enabled  to 
copy  the  old  Samian 
pottery,  common  to 
the  ancient  Gauls,  of 

which  they  possess  admirable  specimens. 

The  several  operations  through  which  terra  cotta  passes,  while 


' 


■ 


_ 


TEEEA  COTTA. 


247 


in  the  course  of  manipulation,  renders  it  impervious  to  the 
weather,  and  capable  of  sustaining  great  heat ; it  is  therefore  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  ornamental  building  purposes.  Architectural 
decorations  are  made  of  it,  in  the  form  of  cornices  or  wash-board- 
ings, centre-pieces  for  ceilings,  and  many  other  decorative  pur- 
poses, to  which  wood  carving  or  stucco  has  been  hitherto  applied. 
These  ornaments  are  entirely  fire-proof,  and  may  be  painted,  if 
their  color  is  not  agreeable,  to  imitate  wood  carvings.  And  it  is 
not  necessary  that  they  should  be  inserted  when  the  * building  is 
erected,  for  they  can  be  fastened  to  the  walls  at  any  time,  by 
means  of  screws  or  liquid  plaster.  The  whole  of  the  grand  fagade 
of  the  Spedale  Maggiore  (the  great  hospital)  at  Milan,  is  made 
of  bricks  moulded  into  a variety  of  forms — graceful  festoons,  cor- 
nices, medallions,  architraves — all  of  brick,  and  of  different  tints. 

We  have  given  an  illustration  of  its  qualification  for  architect- 
ural ornaments  (which  may  be  readily  and  cheaply  moulded)  in 
the  form  of  a Corinthian  capital,  of  American  workmanship. 
Decorations  of  this  description,  when  properly  made  and  baked, 
will  wear  well  and  become  impervious  to  the  weather.  The  most 
delicate  details  can  be  readily  wrought  in  clay  by  skilful  hands; 
the  material  is  readily  obtained,  and  it  requires  only  to  have  its 
qualities  more  fully  appreciated  to  come  into  general  use.  Bricks 
of  the  common  red  clay,  or  any  other  variety  of  clay,  are  now 
coated  with  glass,  to  a degree  that  insures  durability  and  entire 
resistance  to  moisture,  imparting  at  the  same  time  an  ornamental 
appearance  to  the  front  of  buildings  made  of  them.  The  form  of 
the  brick  is  also  made,  by  means  of  grooves  at  the  side  and  ends, 
to  add  greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  edifice;  the  joints  are 
brought  closer,  and  from  the  shape  of  the  groove  the  mortar  acts 
as  a dowel. 

Terra  cotta  has  also  been  successfully  employed  in  modelling 
rustic  figures,  single  and  in  groups,  and  many  of  them  are  full  of 
touching  beauty  and  thoughtful  expression.  We  lose  sight  of 
the  material  entirely,  and  look  only  at  the  artistic  merit  of  groups 
like  the  one  here  presented.  The  finest  sculptured  vases  of  the 
antique  are  likewise  carefully  modelled  after  the  originals,  or  with 
modifications.  One  of  these,  embellished  with  a design  from  the 


248 


AET-MANTJFACTURES. 


Elgin  marbles,  we  have  given  in  another  page.  And  more  hum- 
ble objects,  finished  to  a degree  that  is  full  of  promise,  are  now 
brought  to  our  notice.  Of  these  we  may  ^peak  of  the  beautiful 
hanging  baskets,  an  article  hardly  known  out  of  France  a few 
years  ago,  but  which  now  may  be  seen  in  every  conservatory,  and 
often  in  the  recesses  of  our  parlor  windows. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


GLASS, 


HE  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  been  taught  the  art  of  making 


glass  by  Hermes.  Pliny  says  the  discovery  of  glass  took 
place  in  Syria.  Glass  houses  were  erected  in  Tyre,  where  glass 
was  a staple  manufacture  for  many  ages.  This  article  is  men- 
tioned among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Tiberius,  and  we  know, 
from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows  were  formed  of  glass  be- 
fore A.  D.  79.  Italy  had  the  first  glass  windows,  next  France, 
and  England  followed,  where  imported  panes  were  used  in  pri- 
vate houses  in  1177.  The  manufacture  of  glass  was  established 
in  England  at  Crutched-friars,  and  in  the  Savoy,  in  the  year  1557. 
It  was  improved  in  1635,  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in 
the  reign  of  William  III.  The  first  attempt  to  establish  the 
manufacture  in  this  country  was  in  1790.  Of  subsequent  and 
more  successful  efforts  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  hereafter. 

The  origin  of  glass-making  is  lost  in  the  shades  of  antiquity, 
so  remote  that  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  fable  from  history. 
To  the  former  most  certainly  belongs  the  absurd  legend,  so  often 
quoted  from  Pliny,  that  glass  was  first  formed  accidentally  by 
Phoenician  dealers  in  native  soda,  who,  halting  on  the  shore  of 
the  river  Belus,  and  resting  their  kettles  over  the  fire  upon  lumps 
of  soda,  caused  the  sand  of  the  shore  to  form  glass  with  the  al- 
kali. A single  fact  is  worth  all  the  speculation  which  ingenuity 
can  invent,  and  such  an  one  is  supplied  by  the  researches  of  Lay- 


250 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


ard  among  the  ruins  of  Uineveh,  where  he  found  a perfect  and 
beautifully  formed  vase  of  glass,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It 
bears  the  marks  of  having  been  turned  in  a lathe,  a process  never 
attempted  in  our  time.  The  maker’s  name  is  also  engraved  on 
its  foot,  and  the  circumstances  attending  its  discovery  authorize 
the  belief  that  it  dates  at  least  seven  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  The  same  indefatigable  antiquarian  has  also  discovered 
in  the  ruins  of  the  same  city  a convex  lens  of  rock  crystal,  prov- 
ing that  the  ancient  Assyrians  were,  to  some  degree,  familiar 
with  the  properties  of  light,  as  well  as  with  chemistry. 

The  fact  is,  glass  and  porcelain,  equal  in  quality  to  that  in  use 
at  the  j^’esent  day,  were  made  1600  or  1700  B.  C.  in  Upper 
Egypt.  The  glass  blowers  and  glass  cutters  of  Thebes  imitated 
amethysts,  rubies,  and  other  precious  stones,  with  wonderful  dex- 
terity, specimens  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  museums  of 
Europe ; and  besides  a great  jwoficiency  in  the  art  of  staining 
glass,  they  must  have  been  aware  of  the  use  of  the  diamond  in 
engraving  and  cutting  it.  False  emeralds  of  considerable  size 
have  repeatedly  been  brought  to  light,  and  the  obelisk  of  emerald 
made  mention  of  by  Pliny  (sixty  feet  in  height),  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Ammon,  was  of  glass,  colored  by  the  oxide  of  copper. 
And  granite  sarcophagi,  covered  with  a coating  of  stained  glass, 
through  which  the  hieroglyphics  in  the  stone  appear,  have  been 
exhumed.  Glass  bottles  of  Egyptian  workmanship,  resembling  in 
shape  the  wide-mouth  bottles  used  in  preserving  fruit,  and  similar 
to  our  wine  bottles  in  color  and  measure,  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
cabinets  of  Europe.  The  Florentine  oil  flasks,  and  the  turpentine 
carboys,  as  they  are  called,  from  the  shores  of  the  Levant,  are 
precisely  of  the  form  of  bottles  from  Thebes.  Both  are  protected 
by  matting,  and  such  was  the  custom  with  the  ancients.  Magni- 
fying lenses  they  must  have  had,  for  some  of  their  cameos  extant 
could  not  have  been  cut  without  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  In 
the  Egyptian  room  of  the  British  Museum  there  is  a tablet  of 
stained  glass,  found  at  Thebes.  The  design  is  described  as  taste- 
ful. It  consists  of  a quadruple  star  with  a rose  in  the  centre,  and 
with  foliage  in  the  angles.  Blue,  yellow,  red,  and  green  colors 
are  introduced,  and  they  are  struck  through  the  glass.  In  order 


GLASS. 


251 


to  produce  this  effect  of  glass-staining,  oxides  of  cobalt,  or  cal- 
cined copper  and  zinc,  must  have  been  used  for  the  blue,  oxide  of 
silver  for  the  yellow.  The  ruby  color  of  the  rose — that  color,  of 
which,  till  lately,  we  had  lost  the  art  of  imparting — must  have 
been  given,  as  well  as  the  rich  purple  hue  of  some  of  the  gems, 
by  the  oxide  of  gold.  They  certainly  attained  to  great  profi- 
ciency in  the  preparation  of  their  pigments,  and  their  painted 
walls  still  bear  evidence  of  their  skill  in  this  particular.  On  those 
that  are  still  preserved,  glass  blowers  are  represented  forming 
bottles  of  green  glass.  Those  in  the  British  Museum  have  long 
necks,  and  bulge  out  towards  the  bottom.  Pocket  bottles,  cased 
in  leather,  after  the  manner  of  preparing  them  for  sportsmen, 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  making,  and  they  understood  the  curi- 
ous process  by  which  a bird  or  flower  may  appear  to  be  impris- 
oned within  a piece  of  glass,  so  as  to  form  a part  of  its  own  sub- 
stance. It  appears  they  constructed  the  device  from  filaments  of 
colored  glass,  in  the  first  instance.  It  was  then  covered  with 
transparent  laminae  of  glass,  and  all  were  fused  together  with  so 
much  skill  that  no  joint  in  any  part  of  the  glass  can  even  now  be 
detected  by  the  most  powerful  magnifier.  In  these  specimens 
the  colored  device  appears  as  perfect  on  one  side  as  on  the  other. 
Figures  of  birds,  when  thus  composed,  if  cut  through  at  intervals, 
each  portion  so  divided  will  be  found  to  contain  in  itself  a perfect 
bird.  The  celebrated  Portland  vase  was  long  supposed  to  be  a 
real  sardonyx,  but  it  is  now  found  to  be  formed  of  layers  of  pur- 
ple-colored glass,  united  by  fusion.  It  is  ornamented  with  white 
opaque  figures  in  bas-relief.  The  whole  of  the  blue  ground,  or  at 
least  that  part  below  the  handles,  must  have  originally  been  cov- 
ered with  white  enamel,  out  of  which  the  figures  have  been  sculp- 
tured in  the  style  of  a cameo  with  most  astonishing  skill  and 
labor. 

It  is  a curious  fact  in  the  history  of  discoveries,  that  the  manu- 
facture of  glass  was,  a few  years  since,  unknown  on  the  spot  where 
it  is  reputed  to  have  been  invented  by  the  Phoenicians. 

The  Phoenicians  and  the  Egyptians  introduced  their  art  into 
Sicily,  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  Etruria,  and  it  appears 


252 


ART-M  ANTJE  ACTURES « 


certain  that  manufactories  of  glass  vessels  were  established  in 
these  countries  at  a very  remote  period. 

According  to  some  authors,  glass  was  not  imported  into  Rome 
until  the  time  of  Sylla,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Republic  in  Asia, 
and  when  the  art  of  glass-making  had  already  made  considerable 
progress.  It  immediately  rose  in  high  estimation.  Augustus,  hav- 
ing subdued  Egypt,  required  that  glass  should  form  part  of  the 
tribute  of  the  conquered.  This  tribute,  far  from  being  a burthen 
upon  the  Egyptians,  proved  a source  of  great  advantage  to  them. 
Glass  became  so  much  in  fashion  that  considerable  quantities  were 
imported  to  Rome.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  manufactories  of 
glass  were  established  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  great  city,  and 
this  competition  naturally  awakened  the  emulation  of  the  glass- 
makers. 

The  Romans  soon  discovered  the  method  of  staining  glass,  of 
blowing  it,  of  working  it  on  a lathe,  and  of  engraving  it.  They 
knew  how  to  make  cups  of  glass  as  pure  as  crystal,  and  Pliny 
informs  us  that  Nero  paid,  for  two  of  small  size,  six  thousand 
sestertia.  The  taste  for  vessels  of  glass  was  carried  to  such  an 
extent,  as  to  cause  them  to  be  preferred  for  use  to  vessels  of  gold 
and  silver. 

Nero,  Adrian,  and  his  successors,  down  to  Gallienus,  all  pat- 
ronized the  art  of  glass-making.  This  last  took  a dislike  to  glass, 
and  would  drink  only  out  of  vessels  of  gold,  but  the  manufacto- 
ries of  glass,  which,  under  this  emperor,  began  to  decline,  were 
restored  under  Tacitus,  who  granted  to  the  glass-makers  his  es- 
pecial patronage. 

The  early  Christians  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  deco- 
rating vessels  of  glass,  and  large  quantities  have  been  found  in 
the  catacombs,  and  in  some  of  the  cemeteries  of  Rome,  enriched 
with  various  ornaments. 

When  Constantine  removed  the  seat  of  the  empire  to  Byzan 
tium,  he  was  not  satisfied  with  carrying  off  the  masterpieces  of 
art  from  Rome,  Greece,  and  Asia,  to  adorn  his  new  capital ; but 
he  also  summoned  thither  the  most  celebrated  artists  of  every  de- 
scription. Manufactories  of  all  that  luxury  could  desire,  soon 
rose  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  opulent  city. 


GLASS. 


253 


A severe  shock  was,  of  necessity,  given  to  the  industrial  arts 
by  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  the  pillage  and  burning  that 
Rome  had  several  times  to  undergo,  and  the  miseries  which  over- 
whelmed Italy  for  many  centuries.  The  art  of  glass-making  ap- 
pears to  have  suffered  more  than  any  other,  and  if  some  manufac- 
tories continued  to  exist  in  Italy,  their  productions  must  have 
been  confined  to  common  glass,  intended  only  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. Ornamental  pieces,  or  those  vases  of  colored  glass,  in 
layers  of  different  shades,  enriched  with  carvings  and  skilful  dec- 
orations, which,  for  many  centuries,  had  been  the  pride  and  ad- 
miration of  the  Romans,  these  Italy  had  to  produce.  The  deco- 
rative artists  in  glass  had  found  refuge  in  the  empire  of  the  East, 
and  the  Greeks  alone  were,  for  a long  period,  in  possession  of  the 
manufacture. 

Theopliilus,  the  Monk,  who  described  the  industrial  arts  of 
his  time,  devoted  the  second  book  of  his  treatise  to  an  explana- 
tion of  the  processes  of  the  manufacture  of  glass,  of  the  making 
and  decoration  of  the  vessels  that  can  be  made  of  it,  as  well  as  of 
the  painting  of  glass  windows.  And  when  he  comes  to  speak  of 
ornamental  vases,  of  those  vases  of  glass  embellished  with  incrus- 
tations of  gold,  with  paintings  in  colored  enamel,  and  with  orna- 
ments in  glass  filagree,  it  is  to  Greeks  alone  that  he  attributes 
the  manufacture.  They  also  made  several  kinds  of  vessels  with 
different  sorts  of  glass.  Of  these  were  cups  made  in  opaque 
glass,  the  color  of  sapphire,  which  was  capable  of  three  kinds  of 
decoration.  The  first  consisted  in  cutting  out,  in  rather  thick 
gold  leaf,  human  figures,  animals  or  flowers,  which  were  fixed 
upon  the  cup  with  water ; very  clear  glass,  like  crystal,  fusible  at 
a low  temperature,  was  then,  after  having  been  ground  with 
water  on  a porphyry  stone,  laid  on  very  thinly  over  the  gold 
leaf  with  a pencil.  When  the  preparation  was  dry,  it  was  placed 
in  the  furnace  used  for  firing  the  painted  glass  windows.  The 
wood  was  withdrawn  from  the  furnace  as  soon  as  the  heat  had 
sufficiently  penetrated  the  cup  to  produce  a slight  tinge  of  red. 

The  second  manner  introduced  by  the  Greeks,  for  the  decora^ 
tion  of  cups  of  opaque  sapphire  glass,  consisted  in  enriching  them 
with  subjects  of  ornaments  composed  of  gold  or  silver  ground  in 


254 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


a mill,  tempered  with  water,  and  laid  on  with  a brush.  The  me- 
tallic preparation  was  covered  over  with  the  thin  layer  of  clear 
glass  already  mentioned.  By  another  method,  the  design  was 
expressed  with  enamels  of  the  same  nature  as  those  used  in  in- 
crustations. The  different  enamel  colors  were  ground  separately 
upon  the  porphyry  stone,  laid  on  with  a brush,  and  fixed  upon 
the  glass  by  vitrification  in  the  furnace  used  for  window  glass,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  cup  before  described.  They  also  made 
cups  and  flasks  of  a bright  transparent  glass,  of  a sapphire  and 
purple  color,  which  they  enriched  with  a network  of  white  or 
colored  glass  filagree,  to  which  they  added  glass  handles  of  the 
color  of  the  network.  Thus  the  Greeks  of  the  Lower  Empire, 
from  what  Theophilus  says,  had  not  only  preserved  all  the  fine 
processes  belonging  to  the  glass-making  of  antiquity,  but  they 
also  had  discovered  others,  consisting  of  the  use  of  painting  in 
vitreous  colors,  an  ingenious  method  which  the  ancients  do  not 
appear  to  have  practised. 

If,  however,  the  Eastern  Empire  appears,  until  towards  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  to  have  been  exclusively  in  pos- 
session of  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  glass  vessels,  a powerful 
rival  had  nevertheless  arisen,  who  was  soon  about  to  snatch  from 
it  this  branch  of  artistic  industry. 

In  the  course  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  the  city 
of  Venice  had  become  the  most  commercial  of  the  civilized  world. 
She  had  above  all  established  her  power  by  means  of  navigation 
and  trading  to  the  East.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  profits 
she  derived  by  transporting  the  commodities  of  other  nations  no 
longer  satisfied  her  ambition ; to  commerce  she  was  desirous  of 
uniting  manufactures.  Accordingly,  many  new  ones  were  set  on 
foot,  as  well  at  Venice  itself  as  in  the  States  of  the  Republic  on 
Terra  Firma,  and  those  which  already  existed  received  a lively 
impetus,  and  were  very  considerably  developed. 

The  glass  manufactories,  to  believe  the  Venetian  authors, 
were  almost  contemporaneous  with  the  founding  of  the  city  itself. 
A great  event  which  marked  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, was  tbe  means  of  increasing  their  prosperity,  and  contrib- 
uted to  the  introduction  of  art  into  a manufacture  until  then 


GLASS. 


255 


purely  industrial.  The  Venetian  republic  had,  in  short,  partici- 
pated in  the  taking  of  Constantinople,  by  the  Latins,  (1204,)  and, 
imbued  as  she  was  with  the  spirit  of  commerce,  she  sought  to 
derive  every  possible  advantage  of  this  victory  in  favor  of  her 
dawning  manufactories.  The  glass-houses  of  tlie  Eastern  Empire 
were  inspected  by  agents  of  the  republic,  and  Greek  workmen 
were  allured  to  Venice.  It  is  certain,  that  to  date  from  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  an  uninterrupted  series  may  be  pro- 
duced of  acts  of  the  Venetian  government,  which  prove  both  the 
importance  of  the  glass  manufactories  of  that  remote  period,  and 
the  special  interest  ever  taken  by  the  state  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  art,  which,  to  use  the  expression  of  a Venetian  writer,  it 
guarded  as  the  apple  of  its  eye.  In  this  it  displayed  great  sa- 
gacity ; since,  for  many  centuries,  the  four  quarters  of  the  world 
were  inundated  by  the  various  productions  of  the  glass  manu- 
factures of  Venice,  and  the  sums  of  money  procured  to  the 
Republic  by  this  branch  of  industry  alone,  would  utterly  defy 
calculation. 

From  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  manufactories  of 
glass  had  so  multiplied  in  the  interior  of  Venice,  that  the  city 
was  incessantly  exposed  to  fire.  A decree  of  the  Great  Council, 
in  1287,  prohibited  any  manufactory  of  glass  to  be  established 
within  the  city,  unless  by  the  proprietor  of  the  house  in  which  it 
was  to  be  carried  on.  This  exception  in  favor  of  the  proprietors 
perpetuating  the  inconveniences  which  the  government  had  en- 
deavored to  guard  against,  a new  decree  was  issued,  by  which 
all  the  manufactories  of  glass  still  existing  in  the  interior  of 
Venice  were  ordered  to  be  demolished  and  removed  out  of  the  city. 

It  was  then  that  choice  was  made  of  the  island  of  Murano, 
which  is  only  separated  from  V enice  by  a canal  of  small  extent, 
for  establishing  in  it  the  manufactories  of  glass.  In  a few  years, 
the  whole  island  was  covered  with  glass-houses  of  various  de- 
scriptions. Subsequently  the  manufactories  of  small  glass-ware, 
for  the  making  of  beads,  false  stones,  and  glass  jewels,  were  al- 
lowed to  be  set  up  in  the  very  interior  of  Venice,  with  the  sole 
condition  of  their  being  insulated  at  least  five  paces  from  any 
habitation. 


256 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


This  favor  granted  to  glass  jewelry  proceeded  from  the  im- 
mense trade  in  it  carried  on  by  Venice  at  that  period,  and  the 
government  was  careful  in  no  way  to  check  a branch  of  industry 
which  extended  its  relations  in  Africa  and  Asia,  and  consequently 
favored  the  extension  of  its  navy,  upon  which  depended  the  in- 
crease of  the  power  of  the  republic. 

The  invasion  of  the  Eastern  Empire  by  the  Turks,  and  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  which  occasioned  the  immigra- 
tion of  so  many  artists  into  Italy,  was  beneficial  to  glass-making, 
as  well  as  to  other  industrial  arts.  To  date  from  the  fifteenth 
century,  we  find  the  manufacture  of  glass  vessels  taking  a new 
direction.  The  V enetian  glass-makers  borrowed  from  the  Greeks 
all  their  processes  for  coloring,  gilding,  and  enamelling  glass ; 
and  the  Renaissance  having  restored  a taste  for  the  fine  forms  of 
antiquity,  the  art  of  glass-making  followed  the  movement  given 
by  the  great  artists  of  that  period,  who  rendered  Italy  illustrious ; 
and  vases  were  produced  in  no  wise  inferior  in  form  to  those  be- 
queathed by  antiquity. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  or  rather  in  the  first  years 
of  the  sixteenth,  the  Venetian  glass-makers  distinguished  them- 
selves by  a new  invention,  that  of  vases  enriched  with  filagrees 
of  glass,  either  white  or  colored,  which  twisted  themselves  into  a 
thousand  varied  patterns,  and  appeared  as  if  in  crusted  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  paste  of  the  colorless  and  transparent  crystal.  This 
invention,  which,  while  it  enriched  the  vases  with  an  indestructi- 
ble ornamentation,  preserved  at  the  same  time  their  light  and 
graceful  forms,  gave  a new  impulse  to  the  manufactories  of  glass 
ware,  and  caused  their  beautiful  productions  to  be  even  more 
sought  after  by  every  nation  of  Europe.  Accordingly  the  Vene- 
tian government  used  every  possible  precaution  to  prevent  the 
secret  of  this  new  manufacture  from  being  discovered,  or  Vene- 
tian workmen  from  carrying  away  this  branch  of  industry  to 
other  nations.  A decree  went  forth,  prohibiting  the  exportation, 
without  the  authority  of  the  state,  of  the  principal  materials  in 
the  composition  of  glass,  and  the  superintendence  of  the  manu- 
factories of  Murano  was  intrusted  to  the  chief  of  the  Council  of 
Ten,  and  subsequently  the  Council  reserved  to  itself  the  care  of 


GLASS. 


257 


watching  over  the  manufactories,  to  prevent  the  art  of  glass- 
making from  being  carried  abroad.  Yet  all  these  precautions 
did  not  appear  to  have  been  sufficient,  and  the  inquisition  of  the 
state,  in  the  twenty-sixth  article  of  its  statutes,  announced  the 
following  decision : u If  a workman  transport  his  art  into  a for- 
eign country,  to  the  injury  of  the  republic,  a message  shall  be 
sent  to  him  to  return ; if  he  does  not  obey,  the  person  most 
nearly  related  to  him  shall  be  put  into  prison.  If,  notwithstand- 
ing the  imprisonment  of  his  relatives,  he  persist  in  remaining 
abroad,  an  emissary  shall  be  commissioned  to  put  him  to  death.” 
Two  instances  are  recorded  of  the  execution  of  this  punishment 
on  some  workmen  whom  the  Emperor  Leopold  had  enticed  into 
his  state. 

If  the  government  of  Venice  thought  it  needful,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  display  all  its  severity  against  the  glass-makers,  who 
should  thus  betray  the  interests  of  their  country ; it,  on  the  other 
hand,  loaded  with  favors  those  who  remained  faithful  to  its  ser- 
vice, and  great  privileges  were  accorded  to  the  island  of  Murano. 
From  the  thirteenth  century  the  inhabitants  obtained  the  rights 
of  citizens  of  Venice,  which  rendered  them  admissible  to  all  the 
high  offices  of  state ; and  the  senate  subsequently  granted  them 
the  right  of  electing  a chancellor  to  administer  justice  in  Murano, 
and  a delegate  to  the  Venetian  government,  to  treat  of  matters 
which  interested  the  community. 

The  glass-makers  were  not  classed  among  the  artisans ; they 
received  as  well  from  the  senate  of  V enice  as  from  several  foreign 
sovereigns,  many  privileges  remarkable  for  the  age  in  which  they 
were  granted.  Thus,  the  noble  Venetian  patricians  might  marry 
the  daughters  of  the  master  glass-makers,  without  derogating  in 
any  manner  from  their  dignity,  and  the  children  born  from  these 
marriages  retained  all  their  quarterings  of  nobility.  And  when 
Henry  III.  went  to  Venice,  in  1273,  he  granted  nobility  to  all  the 
master  glass-makers  of  Murano. 

Protected  by  severe  laws,  invested  with  great  privileges,  and 
encouraged  by  honorable  distinctions,  the  manufacturers  of  Mu- 
rano were  thus  elevated  to  the  rank  of  distinguished  artists. 
Their  enamelled  vases  of  the  fifteenth  century,  their  graceful  cups 


258 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


and  ewers,  and  filagree  ornaments  of  the  sixteenth  century,  were 
in  no  wise  inferior  as  regards  either  form  or  decoration  to  the 
finest  productions  of  antiquity,  and  all  Europe  became  their  tribu- 
tary during  two  hundred  years. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  tyrant  fashion, 

which  causes  the  most  beauti- 
ful objects  of  art  to  fall  into 
disrepute,  made  the  glass-ware 
of  Bohemia — glass  cut  in  facets 
— alone  to  be  sought  after,  to 
the  great  detriment  of  the 
beauty  and  lightness  of  the 
forms.  Some  manufactories  in 
France  and  England  began  to 
yield  fine  productions  in  cut 
glass,  and  the  Venetian  glass- 
ware, with  filagree  ornaments, 
gradually  fell  into  disuse.  The 
fall  of  the  Venetian  republic, 
the  abolition  of  the  privileges 
granted  to  the  glass-makers, 
and  of  the  rules  which  gov- 
erned their  corporation,  gave 
the  last  blow  to  the  art  of 
glass-making  at  Venice,  and 
the  manufactories  which  still 
existed  at  Murano,  soon  con- 
fined themselves  to  producing 

domestic  utensils  in  common  glass. 

The  manufacture  of  glass  ware  with  ornaments  in  filagree  or 
in  colored  threads,  is  no  longer  a secret,  and  now  that  collectors 
have  drawn  attention  to  its  merits,  imitations  have  been  attempt- 
ed by  many  manufacturers,  who,  without  having  yet  attained  to 
the  lightness  and  perfection  of  the  forms  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
have  still  introduced  into  commerce  glass  of  much  elegance.  The 
process  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  these  will  be  described 
in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


GLASS 

THE  glass  of  commerce  is  always  composed  of  some  siliceous 
earth,  the  fusion  and  vitrification  of  which  has  been  occasioned 
by  certain  alkaline  earths,  or  salts,  and  sometimes  with  the  aid  of 
metallic  oxides.  The  different  varieties  are  known  as  flint  glass, 
or  crystal ; crown,  or  German  sheet  glass ; broad,  or  common 
window  glass;  bottle,  or  common  green  glass,  and  plate  glass. 
Each  of  these  five  descriptions  contains,  in  common  with  others, 
two  ingredients,  which  are  essential  to  its  formation — silex  and 
an  alkali.  The  variations  of  quality  and  distinctive  differences 
observable  in  glass,  principally  result  from  the  kind  of  alkali  em- 
ployed and  its  degree  of  purity,  as  well  as  the  addition  of  other 
necessary  materials,  such  as  nitre,  oxide  of  lead,  or  of  manganese, 
white  oxide  of  arsenic,  borax,  or  chalk.  Sea  sand,  which  consists 
of  spherical  grains  of  quartz,  so  minute  as  to  be  qualified  for  the 
purpose  without  any  preparation  except  careful  washing,  is  the 
form  in  which  silex  is  most  commonly  used  for  the  purpose.  The 
best  glass  was  formerly  made  wfith  common  flints,  calcined  and 
ground  in  the  manner  already  described  as  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  pottery,  and  hence  the  name  which  it  has  acquired,  of 
flint  glass.  The  employment  of  silex  in  this  form  is  now  wholly 
discontinued,  as  it  is  known  that  some  kinds  of  sand  answer 
equally  well,  while  the  name  is  retained. 

Both  soda  and  potash  are  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  of 
making  glass.  They  are  used  in  the  form  of  carbonates ; that  is, 


260 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


holding  carbonic  acid  in  combination  with  themselves  as  basis. 
The  acid  flies  off  during  the  process  of  manufacturing,  and  the 
result  is  a compound  of  silex  and  alkali.  For  the  finest  flint  glass, 
pearlash,  which  is  potash  in  the  purer  form,  is  used.  Coarser 
kinds  of  alkali,  such  as  barilla,  kelp,  or  wood  ashes,  which  are 
combined  with  many  impurities,  are  employed  in  the  production 
of  inferior  glass.  The  green  color  imparted  to  glass  is  produced 
by  the  iron,  which  is  present  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  in  the 
coarser  alkaline  substances.  This  may  be  removed  by  using  the 
black  oxide  of  manganese.  When  added  in  a moderate  propor- 
tion to  any  simple  glass,  it  imparts  a purple  color,  and  should  the 
quantity  be  much  increased,  this  color  is  deepened  until  the  glass 
becomes  nearly  black.  If,  while  the  mass  thus  colored*  is  in  fusion, 
either  white  arsenic,  or  charcoal,  or  other  carbonaceous  matter  be 
added,  an  effervescence  is  seen  to  follow,  and  the  color  becomes 
gradually  more  faint,  until  it  altogether  disappears  and  the  glass 
is  rendered  clear  and  transparent. 

Borax  is  used  only  in  preparing  the  finest  descriptions  of  glass, 
and  is  confined  principally  to  plate  glass,  causing  the  compound 
to  flow  with  great  freedom,  and  to  be  without  speck  or  bubble, 
which  would  impair  both  its  beauty  and  utility. 

Lime,  in  the  form  of  chalk,  is  useful  as  a very  cheap  flux.  It 
is  also  beneficial  in  facilitating  the  operations  of  the  workmen  in 
fashioning  glass,  and  it  has  the  property  of  diminishing  its  liabil- 
ity to  crack  on  exposure  to  sudden  and  great  variations  of  tem- 
perature. But  when  it  is  in  excess  the  glass  is  rendered  cloudy. 

Three  different  kinds  of  furnaces  are  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glass.  The  calcar,  used  for  the  calcination  of  the  ma- 
terials previous  to  their  complete  fusion  and  vitrification,  the  pro- 
cess of  which  is  called  fritting.  The  working  furnace,  wherein 
the  frit,  when  placed  in  the  glass  pots  or  crucibles,  is  fully  melted 
and  converted  into  glass;  and  the  annealing  oven  or  lear,  for 
tempering  glass,  and  in  which  the  crucibles  intended  for  future 
use  are  dried. 

Flint  glass,  known  also  as  crystal,  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
the  vitrified  compounds  that  are  manufactured.  It  is  the  most 
easily  fashioned  by  the  workman,  and  it  has  the  greatest  refrac- 


GLASS. 


261 


tive  power ; but  for  all  purposes  it  cannot  be  used.  If  a vessel 
of  flint  glass  be  filled  with  carbonate  of  ammonia,  it  will  soon  be 
rendered  brittle,  and  the  slightest  cause  will  occasion  it  to  fall  in 
pieces,  an  objection  that  cannot  be  urged  against  the  common 
green  bottle  glass. 

The  properties  of  flint  glass,  which  distinguish  it  from  other 
vitrified  substances,  are  owing  to  the  presence  of  some  metallic 
oxide.  All  metals  when  oxidated  will  combine  with  silica  and 
alkali,  to  form  glass.  Few  of  these,  however,  are  properly  quali- 
fied for  the  purpose,  in  consequence  of  their  imparting  color  to 
the  mass.  The  oxides  of  lead  and  bismuth  are  the  only  two 
which  may  be  used  in  sufficient  quantity  without  producing  this 
inconvenience ; and  as  lead  is  much  the  cheapest  of  these  metals, 
the  preference  is  always  given  to  it  in  the  manufacture,  while  an 
over-dose  even  of  lead  wall  destroy  the  purity  of  the  glass,  im- 
parting to  it  a yellow  tinge.  There  are  various  proportions  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  flint  glass.  One  rule  is,  to  combine  white 
sand,  red  lead,  pearlash,  and  a small  percentage  of  nitre  and  oxide 
of  manganese ; another  requires  the  use  of  the  same  materials, 
substituting  oxide  of  arsenic  for  the  nitre  and  manganese. 

When  the  ingredients  are  intimately  mixed,  they  are  cast,  by 
means  of  clean  iron  shovels,  through  the  side  opening  of  the  fur- 
nace into  the  crucibles,  which  have  been  brought  to  a white  heat. 
The  pots  are  filled  at  once  with  this  mixture,  but  as  the  bulk  of  it 
decreases  materially  in  melting,  a fresh  portion  must  be  added 
when  this  effect  has  been  produced,  and  this  operation  is  continued 
until,  by  these  successive  fillings,  the  vessel  at  length  becomes 
sufficiently  charged  with  melted  glass.  Before  any  fresh  portion 
of  materials  is  added,  the  contents  of  the  crucible  must  be  com- 
pletely melted.  The  contents  are  soon  observed  to  sink  down  in 
the  state  of  a soft  paste,  and  ere  long  become  perfectly  melted, 
W'hen  it  throwrs  up  a scum,  which,  when  removed,  leaves  a per- 
fectly transparent  glass.  But  a long  continued  and  powerful  heat 
is  required  before  all  the  impurities  are  discharged.  Forty-eight 
hours  from  the  first  charging  of  the  crucibles,  is  the  usual  time 
required  for  the  fusion  and  perfect  refining  of  flint  glass. 

When  cooled  to  the  proper  heat  for  working,  the  glass  has 


262 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


lost  its  perfect  fluidity,  and  forms  a consistent  and  tenacious  mass, 
soft  enough  to  yield  to  the  slightest  external  impression,  yet  capa- 
ble of  being  pulled  and  fashioned  into  all  imaginable  shapes,  with- 
out cracking  or  parting  with  its  tenacity  ; so  that,  if  in  this  state 
it  be  stretched  or  drawn  out,  it  will  preserve  the  form  of  a solid 
fibre,  constantly  decreasing  in  its  diameter,  without  separating 
until  reduced  to  the  merest  filament.  When  no  longer  heated  to 
redness,  it  becomes  rigid,  brittle,  and  transparent.  During  the 
whole  time  of  working  a pot  of  glass,  which  varies  from  five  to 
twenty  hours,  and  in  some  instances  even  a longer  period,  its  con- 
sistency should  be  maintained  as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same 
point ; and  to  succeed  in  this,  calls  for  considerable  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  workmen. 

The  implements  used  by  the  glass-blower  are  few  in  number, 
and  exceedingly  inartificial  in  their  construction.  The  principal 
one  is  simply  a hollow  iron  rod,  or  tube,  about  five  feet  long,  upon 
the  end  of  which  the  workman  collects  the  quantity  of  melted 
glass  that  will  suffice  for  forming  the  article  intended.  In  this 
operation  the  rod  is  dipped  into  the  pot  and  turned  about  several 
times.  If  the  size  of  the  vessel  requires  a considerable  weight  of 
glass  for  its  formation,  the  rod  is  taken  out  and  exposed  for  a mo- 
ment to  the  current  of  air,  by  which  means  the  surface  of  the 
glass  already  collected  is  sufficiently  cooled  for  a fresh  portion  to 
adhere,  and  this  process  is  repeated  until  enough  is  collected  for 
the  object. 

When  the  rod,  thus  loaded,  is  withdrawn  from  the  crucible,  it 
is  held  for  a few  seconds  in  a perpendicular  position,  the  end  to 
which  the  glass  is  attached  being  nearest  the  ground,  that,  by  its 
own  weight,  the  mass  may  be  lengthened  out  beyond  the  rod. 
Then  the  glass  is  rolled  on  the  flat  surface  of  a smooth  horizontal 
iron  plate,  called  the  “ marver,”  by  which  means  the  particles  of 
glass  are  agglomerated  in  a cylindrical  form.  The  workman  now 
applies  his  mouth  to  the  other  end  of  the  tube  and  blows  strongly 
through  it,  so  that  his  breath  penetrating  the  centre  of  the  red- 
hot  glass,  causes  it  to  distend  the  sides  till  the  proper  size  and 
thickness  are  attained.  To  elongate  the  globe  the  effect  is  pro- 
duced by  giving  to  the  rod,  while  the  glass  attached  to  it  is  soft- 


GLASS. 


263 


ened  by  heat,  an  alternate  motion,  similar  to  that  of  a pendulum, 
or  by  dexterously  making  it  perform  a circle  swiftly  through  the 
air. 

At  this  stage  another  instrument,  called  a punt , is  brought 
into  use.  This  is  a solid  iron  rod  of  a cylindrical  form,  smaller 
and  lighter  than  the  tube  used  for  blowing,  and  consequently 
more  within  the  power  and  management  of  the  workman.  Upon 
one  end  of  this  rod  a small  portion  of  melted  glass  is  collected 
from  the  crucible  by  an  assistant,  and  in  this  state  it  is  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  globe,  on  the  side  ojrposite  to  that  where  it  is 
already  attached  to  the  tube.  The  two  substances  speedily  unit- 
ing, the  glass  is  detached  from  the  hollow  rod,  by  touching  it 
near  to  the  point  of  contact  with  a piece  of  iron  dipped  into 
cold  water.  This  occasions  the  glass  to  crack ; so  that,  by  giving 
a smart  stroke  to  the  hollow  rod,  it  is  immediately  and  safely 
separated,  leaving  a small  hole  at  the  point  of  rupture. 

From  the  attendant  the  workman  receives  the  punt  with  the 
glass  vessel  attached,  and  after  reheating  it  at  the  furnace  mouth, 
as  before,  he  seats  himself  in  a sort  of  stool  provided  with  arms 
sloping  forward,  whereon  the  punt  is  supported  before  him  in  a 
horizontal  position,  the  glass  being  at  the  man’s  right  hand. 
Thus  placed,  he  governs  with  his  left  hand  the  movement  of  the 
punt,  by  twirling  it  to  and  fro  along  the  arms  of  the  stool,  and 
taking  in  his  hands  an  iron  instrument,  much  resembling  a pair 
of  sugar  tongs  in  form,  he  enlarges  or  contracts  the  vessel  in 
different  places  until  it  assumes  the  required  form.  All  super- 
abundance of  material  is  cut  away  by  the  scissors,  while  the  glass 
is  red-hot,  with  as  much  ease  as  one  could  divide  a piece  of  soft 
leather. 

To  insure  the  requisite  regularity  in  size  and  shape,  the  work- 
man is  provided  with  compasses  and  a scale  marked  off  into  feet 
and  inches.  The  finished  article  is  detached  from  the  punt,  or 
pontil,  as  it  is  also  called,  as  before  described,  by  wetting  it  with 
cold  water  at  the  point  where  it  is  attached  to  the  rod,  when  it 
drops  gently  on  a bed  of  ashes  kept  at  the  man’s  side  for  the  pur- 
pose. It  is  then  conveyed  without  loss  of  time,  and  still  exceed- 
ingly hot.  to  the  annealing  oven. 


264 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


A glass  shade  has  been  blown  in  Birmingham,  sixty-two  inches 
by  twenty-six  and  a half  inches  in  diameter,  containing  nearly 
forty  pounds  of  glass. 

A secret  in  blowing  great  glass  bubbles  was  lately  described 
in  the  London  Builder.  It  consists  in  simply  moistening  the 
mouth  with  a little  water  before  blowing.  The  water  is  con- 
verted, in  the  interior  of  the  drop,  into  steam,  which  greatly  aids 
the  breath  in  the  extension  of  the  “ bell.” 

If  it  be  required  to  give  to  the  article  any  form  or  pattern  un- 
attainable by  the  simple  means  narrated,  a mould  is  provided, 
into  which  the  glass  is  placed  and  blown,  and  in  this  way  it  re- 
ceives the  requisite  impression  as  readily  as  wax.  To  form  a 
tumbler  in  this  way  a mould  of  solid  brass,  about  as  large  as  a 
half-peck  measure,  and  containing  a hollow  in  it  exactly  of  the 
form  of  a tumbler,  is  prepared.  It  has  also  a follower  of  brass 
of  the  same  form,  but  so  much  smaller  as  to  fit  the  inside  of  the 
tumbler.  When  the  two  parts  are  put  together  the  space  be- 
tween them  is  of  the  exact  thickness  of  the  vessel  required.  In 
the  process  of  manufacturing,  three  men  and  two  boys  are  re- 
quired. The  first  man  dips  an  iron  rod  in  the  melted  glass  and 
moves  it  about  until  he  has  gathered  a sufficient  quantity  of  the 
fluid  mass;  he  then  holds  it  over  the  hollow  of  the  mould,  and 
with  a pair  of  shears  cuts  off  what  he  judges  to  be  just  enough  to 
constitute  the  tumbler.  Instantly  the  next  man  brings  down  the 
follower  with  lever  power,  and  the  melted  glass  is  so  compressed 
as  to  fill  the  cavity  of  the  mould,  which  he  then  turns  bottom  up, 
with  a little  blow,  and  the  tumbler  drops  red-hot  upon  the  stone 
table.  One  of  the  boys,  with  an  iron  rod  having  a little  melted 
glass  on  its  end,  presses  it  on  the  bottom  of  the  tumbler,  to  which 
it  slightly  adheres.  He  then  holds  the  tumbler  in  the  mouth  of 
a glowing  furnace,  turns  it  rapidly  till  it  is  almost  in  a melted 
state,  when  it  is  passed  to  a third  man,  who  whirls  the  rod  and 
tumbler  in  a sort  of  arm-chair,  at  the  same  time  removing  all  the 
roughness  of  the  edge  by  means  of  a small  iron  tool.  From  him 
the  rod  passes  to  another  boy,  wTho  separates  from  it  the  tum- 
bler, which  he  places  in  the  annealing  oven.  In  this  way  these 


GLASS  VASES. 


p.  264. 


GLASS. 


265 


five  hands  will  produce  a beautiful  tumbler  in  about  forty-five 
seconds. 

But  pressing  hot  glass  into  metallic  moulds,  an  art  which  has 
been  considered  a modern  discovery,  was  evidently  understood 
by  the  Egyptians,  as  specimens  of  glass  coins  with  hieroglyphical 
characters,  and  other  similar  works,  attest.  The  Romans  were 
also  in  the  habit  ot  pressing  colored  glass  into  the  form  of  brooches, 
rings,  beads,  &c. 

The  process  of  annealing  is  one  of  great  importance,  as,  with- 
out it,  glass  will  be  liable  to  crack  and  fly  with  the  smallest 
change  of  temperature,  and  would  break  with  the  merest  scratch 
or  touch,  and  even  without  any  apparent  external  cause  of  injury. 
Articles  newly  made  are  placed  in  the  shallow  trays  of  the  an- 
nealing oven,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  fire,  which  is  kindled  under  one  end  only.  Each  one  of  these 
lier  pans,  as  it  is  filled,  is  pushed  forward  towards  the  colder  end 
of  the  oven,  to  make  place  for  a fresh  tray,  until  the  articles  at 
length,  and  in  succession,  reach  the  other  extremity,  whence  they 
are  taken  out,  but  little  warmer  than  the  temperature  of  the  at- 
mosphere. By  the  gradual  manner  in  which  they  have  parted 
with  their  heat,  time  has  been  allowed  for  the  gradual  contrac- 
tion of  the  whole  into  a uniform  and  consistent  substance.  Glass, 
which  is  afterwards  to  pass  through  the  hands  of  the  cutter,  is 
always  made  of  considerable  thickness,  and  requires  not  only  that 
the  heat  of  the  oven  should  range  high,  but  that  it  should  also 
be  withdrawn  very  gradually ; while,  on  the  contrary,  such  arti- 
cles as  are  very  thin  may  be  placed  first  in  a moderate  tempera- 
ture, to  be  removed  altogether  from  the  influence  of  the  fire  at 
the  expiration  of  a few  hours. 

The  name  of  “ crown  glass  ” is  given  to  the  best  kind  of  glass 
used  for  making  windows,  and  like  purposes.  In  its  composition 
no  lead  or  metallic  oxide  enters  as  a fluxinQ-  ao-ent.  A small 
quantity  of  manganese  is  frequently  used,  and  sometimes  also  a 
minute  portion  of  oxide  of  cobalt,  but  the  object  of  these  addi- 
tions is,  the  correction  of  the  faulty  color  in  the  glass,  arising 
from  the  impurities  in  the  sand  and  alkali.  This  kind  is  there- 
fore much  harder  than  flint  glass,  and  would  consequently  be 
12 


266 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


more  difficult  to  fashion  in  any  other  form  than  that  of  a plane 
surface. 

When  the  materials  are  properly  fused  and  refined,  the  work- 
man takes  it  from  the  pot  on  the  end  of  the  tube,  and  blows  it 
into  form,  after  a manner  similar  to  that  already  described,  when 
the  side  opposite  the  tube  is  flattened  by  pressure  against  a plane 
surface ; then  a small  portion  of  melted  glass  is  collected  on  the 
end  of  a punt  and  applied  to  the  end  of  the  flattened  side,  form- 
ing a union  with  it  exactly  opposite  to  the  hollow  tube,  which  is 
then  removed  by  wetting  the  glass  near  to  the  point  of  union, 
leaving  a circular  hole  in  the  glass  about  two  inches  in  diameter. 
To  continue  the  operation  it  must  now  be  heated  again,  when 
the  workman  dexterously  twirls  the  punt  in  his  hand,  slowly  at 
first,  and  then  more  and  more  quickly,  when  the  glass  yields  to 
the  centrifugal  impulse,  its  diameter  becomes  greater  and  greater, 
the  hole  referred  to  expands  proportionally,  and  when  in  this 
continued  progression  the  double  portion  opposite  to  the  end  of 
the  rod  and  between  the  periphery  of  the  glass  and  the  orifice  is 
diminished  to  an  annulus  or  ring  only  a few  inches  wide,  then,  in 
an  unaccountable  manner,  it  instantly  flies  open  and  the  glass  is 
converted  into  a plane  disc  of  fifty  or  sixty  inches  in  diameter, 
having  a uniform  thickness  throughout  the  plate,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  spot  where  it  is  attached  to  the  iron  rod,  where  a knot 
or  lump  is  formed,  called  the  bull’s  eye. 

The  plate  thus  finished,  is  detached  from  the  rod  in  the  usual 
way,  and  placed  on  its  edge  in  the  annealing  oven,  where  some 
considerable  degree  of  care  is  necessary  to  regulate  the  heat  to 
which  it  is  exposed,  as  too  much  would  cause  it  to  bend  and  settle 
down,  and  if  the  oven  be  not  sufficiently  heated  the  plates  are  apt 
to  crack. 

“Broad  glass”  is  a common,  coarse  description  of  window 
glass,  made  of  inferior  ingredients,  and  by  a somewhat  different 
process  than  that  of  crown  glass.  The  sheets  are  thus  prepared. 
The  necessary  quantity  being  collected  on  the  end  of  the  tube,  is 
expanded  by  the  workman  into  a globular,  or  rather  into  an  ellip- 
tical shape,  of  about  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  the  requi- 
site thickness.  This  done,  the  glass  is  carried  to  the  oven’s  mouth, 


GLASS. 


267 


and  the  end  of  the  tube,  through  which  the  workman  has  blown, 
being  closed,  the  farther  expansion  of  the  confined  air  causes  the 
glass  to  burst  in  its  weakest  part.  While  still  hot  and  ductile  it 
is  opened  its  entire  length,  by  a pair  of  shears,  into  a flat  plate, 
which  is  then  carried  to  the  annealing  oven. 

The  composition  of  u bottle  glass”  is  as  little  uniform  as  that 
of  any  other  description  of  the  material.  It  is  usually  made  of 
sand,  lime,  and  sometimes  clay, — any  kind  of  alkali  or  alkaline 
ashes,  which  may  happen  to  offer  the  greatest  inducement  in  the 
point  of  price,  and  sometimes  the  vitreous  slag  produced  from  the 
fusion  of  iron  ore.  Soap-makers’  waste  is  frequently  used  in  the 
proportion  of  three  to  one  of  sand.  The  impurity  of  the  alkali, 
and  the  abundance  of  a fluxing  material  of  an  earthy  nature, 
joined  to  the  very  high  degree  of  heat  at  which  they  are  fused, 
occasion  the  glass  to  contain  a very  small  proportion  of  real  saline 
matter,  for  which  reason  it  is  better  adapted  than  flint  glass  to 
contain  fluid  which  has  a corrosive  action.  Articles  made  of  bot- 
tle glass  are  fashioned  by  the  same  process  as  those  of  flint  glass, 
with  the  exception  of  wine  and  beer  bottles,  the  containing  parts 
of  which  are  blown  in  metallic  moulds,  in  order  to  keep  them 
nearly  of  a uniform  size. 

If,  during  the  time  the  workmen  are  employed  in  blowing  and 
moulding  bottles,  the  melted  glass  becomes  cooler  than  is  desir- 
able for  the  purpose,  so  that  it  be  found  necessary  to  replenish  the 
fires,  so  much  dust  will  be  thus  occasioned  that  the  surface  of  the 
glass  will  be  covered  with  carbonaceous  matter,  and  the  glass, 
which  had  before  r emained  perfectly  quiet,  becomes  suddenly  so 
disturbed  throughout,  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  violent 
ebullition,  and  the  whole  mass  is  immediately  covered  with  an  in- 
finite number  of  minute  air  bubbles,  which,  so  long  as  they  are 
suffered  to  remain,  render  the  glass  wholly  unfit  for  use.  When- 
ever this  occurs,  the  workman  has  only  to  throw  a small  quantity 
of  water  into  the  crucible,  when  the  whole  mass  will  immediately 
be  stilled,  and  the  bubbles  will  as  instantly  disappear,  so  that  he 
may  proceed  without  further  delay.  This  curious  effect  has  been 
referred  to  the  decomposition  of  the  water  by  heat,  which,  giving 
up  its  oxygen  to  the  coal  dust,  converts  it  into  carbonic  acid  gas, 


268 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


in  which  form  it  is  instantly  driven  off  by  the  excessive  heat  of 
the  furnace. 

Two  descriptions  of  plate  glass  are  made  : one  by  opening, 
after  the  blowing,  in  the  manner  of  broad  glass,  already  described ; 
the  other,  by  casting  the  melted  materials  upon  a plane  metallic 
surface,  somewhat  in  the  manner  pursued  in  making  sheet  lead. 

Plates  of  glass  which  are  blown  are  necessarily  limited  in  their 
size,  although  some  of  considerable  dimensions  are  produced  in 
this  way.  Glass  melted  and  run  into  plates  for  windows,  is  said 
to  have  been  introduced  A.  D.  422.  The  real  discovery  of  the 
process  was  accidentally  made  by  a workman,  who  spilt  the  con- 
tents of  a crucible  of  molten  glass  on  the  floor  of  the  glass-house, 
some  of  which  ran  under  a flat  stone,  which,  when  he  raised  it  to 
collect  the  glass,  disclosed  a perfect  plate,  far  superior  to  any  thing 
that  could  be  produced  by  blowing.  This  occurred  about  1498, 
and  the  man  could  not  rest  till  he  had  successfully  carried  out  the 
idea  thus  happily  presented. 

When  cast,  the  extent  of  the  plate  is  limited  only  by  the  very 
heavy  expense  attending  the  erection  of  the  machinery  and  the 
prosecution  of  the  manufacture  in  its  various  parts.  More  care 
in  the  choice  of  materials,  and  greater  nicety  in  conducting  the 
processes,  are  required  for  the  preparation  of  plate  glass,  than  are 
needed  in  any  other  branch  of  the  manufacture.  The  materials 
employed  are  sand,  soda,  and  lime,  to  which  are  added  manganese 
and  oxide  of  cobalt,  as  decoloring  substances.  The  sand  must  be 
of  the  purest  and  whitest  kind,  and  must  be  passed  through  a 
wire  sieve  of  the  proper  closeness,  into  water,  to  free  it  from  all 
impurities.  The  alkali  used  is  always  soda,  which  is  preferred  to 
potash,  as  glass  made  with  the  former  substance  is  thinner  and 
flows  better  while  hot,  and  yet  is  equally  durable  when  cold. 
This  quality  of  flowing  freely  is  of  the  very  first  importance  in 
casting  large  plates,  which,  to  be  perfect,  require  to  be  without 
streak  or  bubble.  Lime  acts  in  promoting  the  fusibility  of  the 
silex  and  alkali ; fulfilling,  thus,  the  same  office  as  is  performed  by 
litharge  in  the  manufacture  of  flint  glass.  Manganese  would  have 
the  effect  of  giving  a slight  tinge  of  red ; but  when  mixed  in  the 
proper  proportion  with  the  blue  of  cobalt,  and  both  together  are 


GLASS. 


269 


met  by  the  natural  slight  yellow  of  the  other  materials,  each 
neutralizes  the  other,  so  that  scarcely  any  definite  tint  remains. 

In  addition  to  these  ingredients,  a considerable  quantity  of 
fragments  of  glass,  or,  as  it  is  called,  cullet,  is  used  in  combination 
with  the  fresh  materials.  Of  these  fragments  there  is  always  an 
abundant  supply  in  the  glass-house,  produced  from  what  is  spilt 
in  casting,  and  from  the  ends  and  edges  that  are  cut  off  in  shaping 
the  plates.  This  broken  glass  is  previously  made  friable  by  throw- 
ing it,  while  hot,  into  cold  water. 

Great  care  is  required  in  mixing  the  materials.  The  sand, 
lime,  soda  and  manganese,  properly  mtermingled,  are  fritted  in 
small  furnaces  wherein  the  temperature  is  gradually  raised  to  a 
full  red,  or  even  to  a white  heat,  at  which  point  it  is  maintained, 
and  the  materials  are  carefully  stirred  until  vapor  is  no  longer 
given  off,  and  no  further  change  is  undergone  by  the  materials. 
This  process  of  fritting  occupies  about  six  hours,  and  when  it  is 
nearly  completed,  the  remaining  portions  of  the  ingredients,  con- 
sisting of  the  cobalt  and  broken  glass,  are  added. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  crucibles  used : the  larger  ones,  where- 
in the  glass  is  melted,  are  called  pots;  the  others,  which  are 
smaller,  are  called  cuvettes.  These  last  are  kept  empty  in  the 
furnace,  exposed  to  the  full  degree  of  its  heat,  that  when  the 
glass  is  ready  for  casting  and  is  transferred  to  them,  they  may 
not  be  injuriously  low  in  temperature.  When  the  glass  is  thor- 
oughly refined  it  is  dipped  from  the  crucible  with  a copper  ladle 
ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  transferred  to  the  cuvette, 
where  it  is  suffered  to  remain  some  hours  in  the  furnace,  that  the 
air-bubbles  formed  by  this  disturbance  may  have  time  to  rise  and 
disperse. 

Another  essential  part  of  the  apparatus  consists  in  flat  tables 
whereon  the  plates  of  glass  are  cast.  Formerly  these  were  made 
of  copper,  but  iron  is  found  to  answer  as  well ; and  at  Raven- 
head,  England,  there  is  a table  of  this  description  that  weighs 
fourteen  tons,  placed  in  a glass-house  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  feet  long,  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  feet  broad,  and  propor- 
tionally high. 

When  the  melted  glass  in  the  cuvette  is  found  to  be  in  the 


270 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


exact  state  that  experience  has  pointed  out  as  most  favorable  for 
its  flowing  readily  and  equally,  this  vessel  is  withdrawn  from  the 
furnace  by  means  of  a crane  and  placed  upon  a low  carriage,  in 
order  to  its  removal  to  the  casting-table,  which  is  placed  contigu- 
ous to  the  annealing  oven.  The  cuvette  is  then  wound  up  to  a 
certain  height  by  a crane,  and  by  means  of  another  simple  piece 
of  mechanism,  it  is  swung  over  the  upper  end  of  the  casting-table 
and  thrown  into  an  inclined  position,  when  a torrent  of  melted 
glass  is  poured  over  the  surface  of  the  table,  which  must  pre- 
viously have  been  heated  and  wiped  perfectly  clean. 

The  glass  is  prevented  from  running  off  the  sides  of  the  table 
by  ribs  of  metal,  one  of  wffiich  is  placed  along  the  whole  length 
of  each  side,  the  depth  being  the  exact  measurement  which  it  is 
desired  to  give  to  the  thickness  of  the  glass.  A similar  rib,  at- 
tached to  a cross  piece,  is  temporarily  held,  during  the  casting, 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  table.  When  the  whole  contents  of  the 
crucible  have  been  delivered,  a large  hollow  copper  cylinder, 
made  perfectly  smooth,  and  which  extends  entirely  across  the 
table,  resting  on  the  side  ribs,  is  set  in  motion,  and  the  glass 
during  its  progress  is  spread  out  into  a sheet  of  uniform  breadth 
and  thickness. 

When  the  plate  of  glass  thus  formed  has  sufficiently  cooled  it 
is  slipped  from  the  table  gradually  and  carefully  into  one  of  the 
annealing  ovens,  where  it  remains  in  a horizontal  position  during 
a period  of  about  fifteen  days ; then  it  is  withdrawn  and  under- 
goes the  operation  of  squaring;  grinding,  polishing,  and  silvering, 
in  order  to  fit  it  for  sale.  The  squaring  is  done  with  a rough- 
diamond,  guided  by  a rule.  The  diamond  cuts  into  the  surface  a 
certain  distance,  and  by  striking  underneath  the  glass  with  a 
small  hammer  the  piece  comes  away.  The  grinding  is  effected 
by  embedding  one  plate  in  a wooden  frame  and  rubbing  another 
plate  steadily  and  evenly  over  it,  first  sprinkling  ground  flint 
between  the  two.  When  one  side  of  each  plate  has  been  suffi- 
ciently ground,  the  two  are  reversed  and  the  process  continued 
on  the  other  side.  The  glass  ground  off  in  this  way  is  usually 
one-half  the  weight  of  the  plates,  which  are  further  polished  with 
fine  emery.  Then  the  plates  are  cut  up  in  such  a manner  that 


GLASS. 


271 


any  blemishes  that  may  appear  are  brought  on  the  edge  of  the 
plates  or  cut  out  without  much  waste.  The  finishing  process  is 
effected  by  means  of  brown  oxide  of  iron  rubbed  on  with  a woollen 
cloth. 

A new  and  beautiful  invention  for  polishing  large  plate  glass 

has  been  brought 
out  in  this  coun- 
try. The  mechan- 
ical process  by 
which  this  labor, 
heretofore  so  diffi- 
cult, delicate  and 
tedious,  is  perform- 
ed, is  exceedingly 
simple  and  ingeni- 
ous. The  plate 
glass,  rough  from 
the  factory,  is  ad- 
justed in  a frame 
having  an  axle  run- 
ning through  the 
centre  of  it  into  an 
iron  support  above. 
The  surface  rests 
on  the  outer  part 
of  a huge  iron  disc, 
which  is  made  to 
revolve  horizontal- 
ly with  great  ra- 
pidity, and  commu- 
nicates a separate 
| |§y  rotary  motion  to 
the  plate.  The 
principle  on  which 
this  motion  is  obtained  is  obvious  enough,  but  its  application 
is  entirely  new.  No  contrivance  could  more  effectually  over- 
come the  great  difficulty  inherent  in  polishing  a surface,  viz.  that 


272 


AET-MANUFACTUEES. 


of  distributing  the  operation  with  perfect  equality  over  every 
part  of  it.  The  plate  is  kept  on  this  disc  until  it  is  ground  corn-, 
paratively  smooth  by  the  attrition  of  coarse  sand — a process  re- 
quiring about  two  hours.  It  is  then  adjusted  in  a similar  manner 
on  a second  iron  disc  to  receive  the  final  polish : the  glass  at  this 
stage  of  affairs  being  only  translucent.  This  disc  is  covered  with 
felt,  and  a very  soft  and  fine  sand  is  used  in  grinding.  In  this 
disc  there  are  grooves,  by  which  air  is  admitted  between  the  two 
surfaces,  so  as  to  overcome  a great  part  of  the  friction,  and  thus 
effect  a large  saving  in  the  motive  power.  The  plate  is  kept  on 
the  second  disc  for  about  three  hours,  and  when  taken  off  is  as 
clear  as  crystal. 

Mirrors  are  silvered  with  an  amalgam  of  mercury  and  tin.  A 
slab  of  marble  somewhat  larger  than  the  size  of  the  required 
plate,  and  fitted  with  a frame  open  at  the  top,  is  prepared. 
There  is  also  a ledge  three  inches  deep  round  three  of  its  sides. 
The  bottom  of  the  frame  is  supplied  with  a channel,  to  collect  the 
surplus  mercury  and  convey  it  to  a vessel  placed  underneath. 
The  slab  is  fitted  on  a pivot,  so  that  one  end  may  be  raised  and 
the  other  depressed  at  pleasure.  On  its  surface  a paper  is  stretch- 
ed. Over  this  a sheet  of  very  thin  tinfoil,  a little  larger  than  the 
plate  to  be  silvered,  is  then  laid  smoothly,  and  as  much  mercury 
as  will  remain  upon  the  flat  surface  is  poured  on.  The  end  of  the 
slab,  which  is  unprovided  with  a ledge,  is  then  covered  with 
parchment,  and  the  plate  of  glass  is  allowed  carefully  to  slide 
into  the  frame,  resting  the  while  upon  the  parchment. 

The  art  of  properly  effecting  the  deposit  of  the  glass  upon  the 
foil,  consists  in  holding  it  during  its  sliding,  in  such  a position  that 
it  will  dip  into  the  mercury,  carrying  a portion  of  the  metal  be- 
fore it,  but  without  once  touching  the  tin  in  its  passage.  By  this 
means  any  dust  or  oxide  which  may  rest  upon  the  mercury  will 
be  removed,  and  no  air  bubbles  will  remain  between  the  glass  and 
the  tin,  while,  if  the  tin  were  touched,  however  slightly,  it  would 
certainly  be  torn. 

When  the  entire  surface  of  the  glass  plate  has  been  passed, 
it  is  allowed  gently  to  drop  on  the  tinfoil  and  to  squeeze  out  the 
superfluous  mercury  from  between,  all  of  which  is  collected  in 


GLASS. 


273 


the  channel  prepared  for  that  purpose.  The  plate  is  then  covered 
with  a thick  flannel  and  loaded  at  regular  intervals  with  consider- 
able weights,  and  the  end  of  the  slab  is  a little  raised,  to  assist 
the  escape  of  the  superabundant  mercury.  After  remaining  in 
this  position  the  entire  day,  the  plate  is  cautiously  taken  from  the 
frame  and  left  for  several  days,  to  allow  the  amalgam  to  harden. 
About  a month  is  required  to  perfect  large  mirrors,  and  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  days  for  those  of  a moderate  size. 

A new  mode  of  silvering  and  ornamenting  glass  has  a fine 
effect.  It  is  a novel  plan  of  engraving  the  under  surface  of  mir- 
rors, &c.,  with  borders  of  flowers  and  other  devices,  prior  to  sil- 
vering. The  whole  is  then  silvered,  and  the  pattern  appears  as  if 
in  relief  on  the  surface  of  the  glass,  and  executed  in  the  most  del- 
icate silver.  This  invention  may  be  employed  in  various  ways, 
for  decorating  interior  fittings,  furniture,  and  articles  of  glass  de- 
signed for  the  table. 

Another  process  of  silvering,  also  a new  invention,  is  by  means 
of  a solution  of  silver  poured  in  between  two  walls  of  glass,  so 
that  we  have  a mirrored  surface  produced  within  and  without  the 
goblet  or  vase.  This  enables  the  manufacturer  to  improve  the 
appearance  of  his  article.  As  the  inner  part  of  a goblet  is  made 
of  brilliant  yellow  glass,  the  silver  looks  as  if  it  were  gilded,  and 
we  have  the  effect  of  a silver  cup  gilt  within.  A very  ingenious 
optical  deception  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  glass  ware  treated 
after  this  manner.  Before  the  two  parts  are  combined,  which  is 
a secondary  process,  one  of  them  is  engraved,  upon  what  will  be 
the  enclosed  or  silvered  side.  Sometimes  both  parts  are  thus  en- 
graved, and  when  they  are  brought  together  and  united,  which  is 
not  so  difficult  a process  as  it  would  at  first  appear  to  be,  and  the 
interior  is  silvered,  the  engraved  parts,  reflecting  the  light  from 
different  angles  to  the  eye,  assume  the  appearance  of  embossed 
surfaces,  the  relief  in  many  instances  being  very  remarkable.  The 
touch,  however,  proves  that  the  exterior  is  perfectly  plain. 

The  coloring  matter  used  to  color  glass  is  much  the  same  as 
that  employed  for  painting  on  porcelain,  and  to  metallic  oxides 
the  artist  must  look  for  his  materials.  But  there  is  this  difference 
in  the  application ; in  decorating  porcelain  the  colors  are  applied 
12* 


274 


AET-M  ANU  F ACTUEES. 


superficially,  in  the  manner  of  pigments,  while  they  enter  more 
intimately  into  the  composition  of  glass,  being  transfused  through 
the  whole  mass,  and  equally  incorporated  with  its  entire  substance. 

Gold,  in  a state  of  great  division,  and  oxidated,  has  long  been 
celebrated  as  a means  of  imparting  to  glass  a most  exquisite  pur- 
ple color  bordering  on  red,  resembling  the  ruby  and  nearly 
equalling  that  gem  in  the  richness  of  its  hue.  It  is  not  by  any 
means  easy  to  prepare  glass  of  this  color  with  any  certainty  of 
success.  The  manner  of  preparing  the  purple  of  Cassius  from 
gold  has  already  been  described.  It  is  not  essential  that  gold  used 
for  this  preparation  should  be  absolutely  pure  or  unalloyed,  since 
neither  copper  nor  silver,  when  present  in  small  quantities,  appear 
to  alter  or  diminish  its  coloring  powers.  To  the  precipitate  of 
Cassius  is  added  about  one-sixth  its  weight  of  perfect  white  oxide 
of  antimony,  which  imparts  the  yellowish  tinge  considered  to  be 
an  important  ingredient  in  fine,  ruby-colored  glass.  And  great 
care  is  also  required  in  managing  the  heat  in  preparing  this  color, 
for  too  great  a degree  will  injure,  if  it  does  not  destroy  it,  while 
every  land  of  vapor  should  be  carefully  excluded.  One  part  of 
this  color  added  to  one  thousand  parts  of  glass,  it  is  said,  will  im- 
part to  the  whole  a full,  rich  body  of  color. 

Silver,  in  all  its  forms  of  oxidation,  imparts  a very  pure  and 
beautiful  yellow  color  to  vitreous  bodies ; but  this  color  is  easily 
destroyed  through  the  accidental  employment  of  too  high  a de- 
gree of  heat — an  evil,  against  the  occurrence  of  which  it  is  so  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  provide,  that  silver  is  very  seldom  resorted 
to  as  a coloring  material  by  glass-workers.  A good  yellow  color 
is  obtained  from  the  pure  oxide  of  lead,  when  employed  alone ; 
but  a sufficient  quantity  to  give  the  required  depth  of  shade 
would  render  the  glass  inconveniently  soft.  Chromate  of  lead, 
which  is  not  liable  to  the  objection,  has  therefore  the  preference. 

Colors,  varying  in  shade  from  brown  to  a very  fine  transparent 
yellow,  may  be  given  to  common  glass,  by  simply  adding  to  it, 
while  in  a state  of  perfect  fusion,  some  vegetable  carbonaceous 
matter.  The  substance  which  has  been  most  commonly  employed 
for  this  purpose,  is  tartar,  but  almost  any  solid  and  inflammable 
vegetable  matter  will  probably  answer  equally  well. 


GLASS. 


275 


The  oxides  of  iron  give  many  and  very  different  shades  of 
enamel  colors.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  green 
color  of  common  bottle  glass  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  iron  in 
the  unpurified  sea-sand  and  ashes  of  which  it  is  composed.  An 
increased  quantity  of  this  oxide,  if  applied  to  glass  when  in  a 
state  of  perfect  vitrification,  will  give  a yellow  color  to  the  mass. 
A still  larger  quantity  will  impart  a brownish  black  hue,  which, 
however,  appears  to  be  nothing  more  than  a yellow  very  highly 
concentrated.  The  red  color,  which  is  imparted  by  the  oxides  of 
iron  to  porcelain,  is  owing  to  the  state  of  imperfect  vitrifaction, 
whereby  the  metal  is  held  in  a state  of  minute  division  through- 
out the  mass,  which  same  effect  is  apparent  in  glass  up  to  a certain 
point ; but  when  in  the  advanced  stages  of  vitrifaction  the  heat 
is  raised  so  that  a perfect  fusion  of  the  glassy  substance,  as  well 
as  of  the  oxide,  is  produced,  the  color  is  immediately  converted 
to  yellow. 

The  black  oxide  of  manganese  is  used  to  correct  the  impuri- 
ties of  the  alkali  employed  in  the  original  composition  of  glass,  as 
well  as  to  remove  the  green  tinge  resulting  from  the  presence  of 
iron.  When  these  imperfections  do  not  exist  in  the  original  in- 
gredients, if  manganese  be  added  to  the  glass  it  will  impart  a 
purplish  red  color.  This  oxide  also  forms  a principal  constituent 
in  the  production  of  black  glasses,  but  if  any  portion  of  arsenical 
salts  should  be  present  in  the  glass,  the  efficacy  of  manganese  will 
be  destroyed. 

Copper,  either  in  the  form  of  simple  or  carbonated  oxides, 
yields  a very  fine  green,  and  the  channels  of  success  in  the  attain- 
ment of  this  are  greater  than  attend  the  production  of  most  other 
colors.  It  may  also  be  made  to  yield  a carmine  red,  and,  if 
mixed  with  iron,  a full  deep  red  color,  by  adding  to  the  glass^ 
with  which  it  has  already  been  combined  a quantity  of  tartar. 
The  iron  must  be  in  proportion  of  three  to  one.  Copper,  in  the 
state  of  oxidation,  is  often  used  in  combination  with  the  oxide  of 
manganese  and  iron,  for  the  production  of  black  glass.  A green 
may  also  be  produced  from  the  protoxide  of  chromium.  Chrome 
is  the  natural  coloring  matter  of  the  precious  metals,  and  is  found 
to  be  a very  valuable  substance  in  the  coloring  of  artificial  gems. 


276 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Oxide  of  cobalt  is  universally  employed  for  the  production  of 
blue  colors  in  vitrified  bodies.  It  is  also  emjfioyed  in  the  compo- 
sition of  other  colors;  combined  with  the  oxides  of  lead  and  anti- 
mony, it  furnishes  green,  and,  if  mixed  with  those  of  manganese 
and  iron,  it  produces  a very  fine  black.  Greens  of  various  tints, 
passing  into  turquoise,  are  often  obtained  by  exposing  for  several 
days  thin  plates  of  brass  upon  tiles  in  the  leer,  or  annealing  arch 
of  the  glass-house,  till  it  be  oxidized  into  a black  powder,  aggre- 
gated in  lumps.  This,  when  pulverized  and  sifted,  is  again  to  be 
well  calcined  for  several  days  more,  till  no  particle  remains  in  the 
metallic  state,  when  it  will  form  a fine  powder  of  a russet-brown 
color.  A third  calcination  must  now  be  given,  with  a carefully 
regulated  heat,  its  quality  being  tested  from  time  to  time  by 
fusion  with  some  glass,  and  when  found  to  make  the  glass  swell 
and  intumesce  it  is  of  the  right  quality. 

The  basis  of  artificial  gems  is  one  of  the  colorless  glass  or 
pastes,  or  some  other  very  similar  vitrified  compound,  and  this  is 
colored  with  the  oxides  already  referred  to.  Purple  of  Cassius 
and  oxide  of  manganese  give  the  proper  hue  for  a garnet;  oxide 
of  copper  and  iron  are  required  for  the  emerald  ; cobalt  and  man- 
ganese for  a sapphire,  &c. 

Colored  glass  came  into  use  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  when 
the  Romans  employed  it  in  the  composition  of  mosaic  decorations. 
Samples  of  colored  glass  have  been  taken  from  the  coffins  of 
Egyptian  mummies,  and  the  most  ancient  authors  mention  this 
material  for  the  formation  of  artificial  gems. 

The  earliest  specimens  of  painted  windows  differ  from  those 
of  more  recent  date,  in  having  been  formed  of  small  pieces  of 
glass,  colored  throughout,  during  the  process  of  the  original  man- 
ufacture, and  which  is  known  as  “ pot  metal.”  Pieces  of  this,  cut 
to  the  shapes  required,  were  joined  together  in  the  manner  of 
mosaics  by  the  interposition  of  lead,  in  a way  which  has  since 
fallen  greatly  in  disuse,  the  method  of  staining  and  burning  in 
metallic  colors  in  the  surface  of  the  glass  having  been  found  far 
more  beautiful,  and  it  admits  of  a greater  variety  of  tints. 

Colored  glass  blown  into  sheets  is  of  course  colored  through- 
out, and  this  is  called  “ pot  metal.”  But  another  process  is  for 


; 


* 


GLASS. 


277 


tlie  workman  to  dip  his  blow-pipe  first  into  colored  and  after- 
wards into  white  glass ; then  he  blows  out  the  compound  mass 
and  a sheet  is  formed  of  two  layers,  one  colored  and  generally 
very  thin,  and  one  white.  This  is  called  “flashed”  glass,  and  the 
only  way  to  distinguish  it  from  pot  metal  is  to  examine  the  edge. 
All  the  colors  are  occasionally  made  in  this  way ; but  ruby  glass 
is  always  flashed,  because  it  is  of  too  deep  a color  to  allow  of 
being  blown  of  the  ordinary  thickness.  The  layer  of  colored 
glass  is  seldom  thicker  than  ordinary  letter  paper,  the  substance 
of  the  pane  being  white  glass.  These  thin-colored  strata  are 
easily  removed  from  the  surface  by  the  well-known  method  of 
glass-cutting  and  engraving,  or  by  the  action  of  the  fluoric  acid 
in  etching  or  embossing. 

There  is  another  way  of  coloring  glass,  which  is  called  stain- 
ing, by  which  the  various  tints  of  yellow,  from  a faint  lemon  to  a 
somewhat  brownish  red,  may  be  obtained,  but  there  is  as  yet  no 
process  for  staining  glass  blue,  green,  &c.  The  staining  is  done 
after  the  glass  is  blown,  and  the  process  depends  upon  a peculiar 
property  of  silver,  which  is  generally  employed  in  the  form  of  a 
chloride,  ( luna  cornea  or  silver  horn,)  and  is  mixed  and  ground 
with  some  inert  substance,  as  oxide  of  iron  or  pipe  clay.  The 
mixture  or  stain  is  floated  over  the  article  to  be  colored,  by  the 
aid  of  water  or  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  when  dry  the  coating  is 
about  as  thick  as  Bristol  board.  The  glass  is  then  brought  to  a 
red  heat,  and  afterwards  annealed ; during  the  operation  the  silver 
penetrates  and  actually  dies  or  stains  the  glass,  while  the  oxide 
of  iron  or  clay  remains  loose  on  the  surface.  The  color  thus  ob- 
tained is  perfectly  clear  and  brilliant,  and  the  surface  of  the  glass 
aj^pears  to  have  undergone  no  change.  The  tint  of  the  stain  is 
intense,  generally  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  silver  employed 
and  the  duration  of  the  heat ; but  the  darkest  and  richest  tints 
can  only  be  produced  on  glass  made  for  the  purpose.  The  best 
crown  glass  is  generally  chosen  for  staining  or  painting. 

Glass  is  also  colored  yellow  by  antimony,  or  the  admixture  of 
what  is  known  as  the  glass  of  antimony,  which  is  obtained  by 
roasting  sulphuret  of  antimony  to  a state  of  antimonious  acid, 
and  then  melting  it  with  an  additional  quantity  of  the  undecom- 


278 


ART-M  A N UF  ACT  17  RES . 


posed  sulphuret.  Tlie  result  of  this  is  the  formation  of  a glass  of 
a transparent  hyacintliine  color.  The  Bohemians  add  a little 
oxide  of  iron  to  the  glass  of  antimony,  by  which  a greater  dejjth 
of  color  is  produced. 

Staining  and  painting  glass  differ  in  some  respects  from  all 
other  styles  of  pictorial  embellishments.  They  agree,  however, 
generally  with  the  processes  used  in  painting  porcelain,  not  only 
in  the  nature  of  the  substance  to  be  embellished,  and  in  the  ma- 
terials whence  the  colors  are  derived,  but  likewise,  for  the  most 
part,  in  the  methods  used  for  the  application  of  those  colors,  and 
in  the  necessity  which  exists  for  fixing  them  by  exposure  to  a de- 
gree of  heat.  The  art  is,  indeed,  in  most  particulars,  analogous 
to  the  methods  employed  for  painting  porcelain,  and  which  have 
already  been  treated  of.  The  colors  are  drawn  from  the  same 
class  of  mineral  substances  as  afford  enamel  colors ; they  are  pre- 
pared, and  for  the  most  part  are  applied,  in  the  same  manner, 
while  any  difference  which  may  be  found  to  exist  in  the  mode  of 
fixing  and  bringing  out  the  effects  of  colors  by  the  aid  of  fire,  are 
more  referred  to  the  varied  forms  of  the  articles  than  to  any 
actual  difference  observable  between  the  habitudes  of  glass  and 
porcelain. 

Various  compounds  are  recommended  to  be  used  with  the 
colors  as  fluxes,  in  order  to  promote  their  fusion  when  exposed  to 
the  heat  of  the  furnace ; these  are  termed  hard  and  soft  fluxes, 
in  proportion  as  they  require  a greater  or  less  amount  of  heat  for 
their  perfect  fusion.  A fluxing  compound  very  generally  used, 
is  made  from  flint  glass,  pearlash  and  borax,  and  the  directions 
for  fluxes  for  porcelain  are  equally  applicable  for  those  that  are  to 
be  used  for  glass. 

When  enamel  colors  are  applied  to  glass,  they  are,  besides  the 
union  with  a fluxing  material,  mixed  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
painting  on  porcelain,  with  some  substance  as  a vehicle  for  caus- 
ing them  to  flow  readily  from  the  brush,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
prevent  the  colors  from  blending  themselves  one  with  the  other 
during  the  operation.  Oil  of  lavender,  balsam  of  capivi,  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  sometimes  gum-water,  are  employed  as  a vehicle. 

Many  subjects  may  be  painted  on  glass  by  persons  who  have 


GLASS. 


279 


not  acquired  any  previous  knowledge  of  the  art  of  design.  The 
transparent  portion  of  the  material  enables  the  artist  to  see  both 
the  outline  and  the  shading  of  any  pattern  which  may  be  fixed 
upon  its  under  side.  The  outlines  of  every  such  pattern  should 
be  decidedly  given,  and  the  whole  contour  and  shading  must  at 
once  be  obvious  when  looking  on  its  upper  surface.  When  the 
pattern  paper  is  laid  horizontally  upon  the  glass,  it  must  be  se- 
cured by  wafers  at  each  of  its  four  corners,  to  prevent  its  drifting. 
The  glass  must  then  be  placed  upon  an  easel,  and  the  artist  works 
exactly  as  he  would  were  he  engaged  in  painting  on  canvas,  ap- 
jflying  his  colors  with  a soft  brush,  and  resting  his  hands  on  a 
maul  stick,  in  the  same  way,  to  avoid  touching  the  surface  of  the 
glass  with  his  hand. 

The  shading  and  coloring  are  very  frequently  performed  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  glass,  and  this  condition  is  almost  invariably 
observed  where  the  color  to  be  applied  can  be  made  to  flow  with 
sufficient  freedom ; or,  to  use  the  words  of  the  artist,  which  can 
be  floated  on  the  surface  of  the  glass.  In  cases,  too,  where  it  is 
desired  to  produce  tints,  such  as  many  shades  of  green,  which 
would  result  from  the  admixture  of  two  different  colors,  the  same 
effect  is  produced  by  applying  one  of  these  to  the  face  and  the 
other  to  the  reverse  of  the  glass.  There  are  only  three  colors 
which  can  be  floated  on,  and  which  are  called  “ stains,”  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  all  others,  which  must  be  laid  on  by  the 
strokes  of  a brush,  and  these  are  orange,  red,  and  lemon  color. 

In  floating  on  a stain,  a large  camel-hair  pencil  in  a swan’s 
quill,  or  a flat  varnish  brush  of  the  same  material,  must  be  used. 
And  in  applying  the  stain  it  must  be  so  managed  that  as  it  quits 
the  brush  it  may  float  gently  and  evenly  over  the  surface.  Twelve 
hours  are  then  allowed  for  it  to  dry,  after  which  it  is  submitted  to 
the  action  of  heat  in  the  kiln. 

The  size  of  the  kiln  will  depend  upon  the  number  and  magni- 
tude of  the  pieces  of  glass  upon  which  it  may  be  desired  to  op- 
erate at  one  time.  At  Sevres,  single  sheets  of  glass,  half  an  inch 
thick,  five  and  a half  feet  high,  and  five  feet  wide,  have  been  fired. 
The  glass  is  placed,  during  the  firing,  in  a close  iron  box  or  oven, 
which  is  called  a muffle,  and  which  is  provided  with  horizontal 


280 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


iron  shelves,  placed  at  regular  distances  apart,  whereupon  the 
plates  are  deposited.  The  relative  sizes  of  the  muffles  and  furnaces 
are  such,  that  a space  of  not  less  that  four  inches  remains  between 
the  two  on  every  side ; by  which  means  the  fire  may  be  made  to 
envelope  the  muffle.  This  receptacle  is  provided  with  a tube,  pro- 
ceeding from  its  front,  and  narrow  towards  its  extremity,  the  use 
of  which  is  to  examine  the  state  of  the  glass  from  time  to  time, 
during  the  firing.  The  iron  plates  for  supporting  and  separating 
the  glass,  and  which  are  fitted  to  the  shape  of  the  muffle,  are  kept 
at  their  proper  distance,  usually  about  an  inch  asunder,  by  legs 
of  the  requisite  length,  placed  at  the  four  corners.  If  the  plates 
of  glass  were  placed  in  immediate  contact  with  the  iron  shelves 
within  the  muffle,  the  metal  would  have  an  injurious  effect  upon 
some  colors.  The  iron  is  also  liable  to  warp,  and  would  com- 
municate its  own  distorted  shape  to  the  glass,  when  the  latter 
was  brought  in  contact  with  it  in  a softened  state.  This  is  pro- 
vided against  by  making  a bed  for  the  glass  of  whiting,  spread 
on  the  shelf  to  the  depth  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch. 

The  proper  management  of  the  fire  in  respect  to  the  degree 
of  heat  employed,  is  a thing  which  must  be  acquired  through 
practice.  It  may,  however,  be  stated  generally,  that  caution  is 
necessary  in  the  first  stage  of  heating,  so  as  to  avoid  a very  sud- 
den accession  of  heat ; but  when,  on  inspection,  the  glass  placed 
in  the  muffle  is  seen  to  have  acquired  a dull  red  heat,  the  fire  may 
be  urged  with  safety,  till  the  whole  contents  of  the  muffle  have 
acquired  a uniform  white  heat.  When  this  effect  has  once  been 
produced,  no  more  firing  is  requisite ; the  fuel  which  is  in  the 
furnace  must  be  allowed  to  burn  itself  out,  and  the  kiln,  remain- 
ing closed,  must  be  left  to  cool  gradually  during  ten  or  twelve 
hours,  before  it  is  attempted  to  remove  the  glass ; at  the  end  of 
this  time  it  may  be  considered  properly  annealed. 

When,  on  the  establishment  of  Christianity,  the  ancient  basil- 
ica were  converted  into  Christian  temples,  the  windows  of  these 
new  temples  were  adorned  with  colored  glass ; but  in  these  bril- 
liant glasses  of  various  colors,  there  were  yet  no  figures,  no  orna- 
ments painted  upon  the  glass ; they  were  composed  of  a number 
of  pieces,  variously  colored,  each  being  throughout  of  a uniform 


. 

■ 


STAIN  SI)  WINDOW  QFJTIIE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY,  5S 


GLASS. 


281 


tinge,  and  cut  out  into  different  patterns  and  arranged  to  form 
designs.  These  can  only  be  considered  as  transparent  mosaics. 

The  painted  windows  of  the  thirteenth,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
twelfth  century,  have  nearly  the  same  character.  The  general 
design  consisted  of  little  historical  medallions  of  various  forms, 
symmetrically  distributed  over  mosaic  grounds  comprised  of  col- 
ored glass,  borrowed  from  preceding  centuries.  This  ground  is 
arranged  in  square  or  lozenge-shaped  panels,  filled  with  quatrefoils, 
trefoils,  and  other  ornaments : the  whole  design  is  surrounded 
with  borders  of  varied  patterns,  of  scroll-like  foliage,  interfacings, 
palms,  and  other  leaves  of  different  kinds.  The  subjects  of  the 
medallions  are  taken  from  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament,  or 
more  often  from  the  legendary  history  of  the  saints.  The  princi- 
pal outlines  of  the  designs,  both  of  the  medallions,  and  of  the 
grounds,  are  formed  by  the  lines  of  lead  used  for  holding  the  dif- 
ferent pieces  of  glass  together,  and  which  thus  formed  a black 
boundary  to  each  subject.  The  pieces  of  glass  are  in  general  col- 
ored, rarely  plain.  Upon  these  pieces,  which  are  always  of  small 
size,  the  folds  of  the  draperies,  and  the  details  of  the  ornaments 
are  portrayed  by  a reddish  or  bistre  color,  laid  on  with  a brush. 
The  shading  is  produced  by  a number  of  equal  and  parallel  lines, 
such  as  are  used  in  engraving  and  drawing.  The  flesh  tints  them- 
selves are  not  expressed  by  any  application  of  color  ; but  a glass 
lightly  tinged  with  violet  forms  the  ground,  and  the  features  are 
indicated  with  this  same  bistre  enamel. 

The  chief  merit  of  the  windows  of  the  twelfth  century,  and 
of  the  thirteenth,  and  which,  notwithstanding  their  many  imper- 
fections, causes  them  to  be  esteemed,  is  their  perfect  harmony 
with  the  general  effect  of  the  edifices  to  which  they  belong.  At 
whatever  distance  we  examine  them,  we  are  struck  by  the  elegance 
of  their  form  and  the  brilliancy  of  their  color.  The  artist  has  had 
no  intention  of  executing  an  independent  work ; he  has  given 
himself  little  trouble  about  a faithful  copy  of  nature ; his  whole 
aim  has  been  to  contribute,  under  the  direction  of  the  architect, 
to  the  ornamentation  of  the  building ; and  he  has  never  failed  of 
success  through  the  skilful  arrangement  and  the  harmonious  dis- 
tribution  of  his  colors,  which,  notwithstanding  their  brilliancy, 


282 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


shed  over  the  interior  of  the  temple  a mysterious  light,  adding 
much  to  the  solemn  grandeur  of  the  architecture.  This  harmony 
of  effect  did  not  exclude  a richness  of  detail.  The  mosaics  of  the 
ground  and  the  borders  which  surrounded  them  are  always  of 
graceful  patterns,  of  infinite  variety  and  of  charming  originality. 
The  subjects  are  characterized  by  a touching  simplicity,  neither 
devoid  of  life  nor  movement. 

On  a wooden  table,  which  had  previously  been  whitened  with 
pulverized  chalk,  and  sprinkled  with  water,  the  artist  first  marked 
with  a rule  and  compass  the  exact  size  of  the  window  or  pane  of 
the  window  to  be  composed.  This  done,  he  sketched  out  with 
lead  or  tin,  and  afterwards  with  a red  or  black  color,  the  subject 
to  be  represented  upon  the  glass,  together  with  the  borders  and 
other  ornaments  with  which  it  was  to  be  decorated.  He  then 
noted  down  the  color  of  each  part  of  the  composition,  either  by 
color  applied  upon  the  table  in  the  different  compartments  which 
formed  the  design,  or  by  a conventional  letter,  which  referred  to 
a given  color.  The  artist,  from  these  memoranda,  then  took  as 
many  pieces  of  colored  glass  as  there  were  different  compartments 
in  the  design,  and  placing  these  pieces  of  glass,  one  after  the 
other,  on  the  spaces  they  were  to  fill,  he  traced  upon  them,  with 
chalk  ground  in  water,  the  outlines  of  the  design  he  saw,  through 
the  glass,  upon  the  table. 

The  glass-makers  were  not  then  acquainted  with  the  method 
of  cutting  glass  with  the  diamond,  which  did  not  begin  to  be 
used  until  the  sixteenth  century.  To  cut  out  all  these  pieces  of 
glass,  they  made  use  of  a rod  called  the  dividing  iron ; this  was 
heated  in  the  fire  and  drawn  along  the  lines  to  be  divided,  which 
they  took  the  precaution  of  slightly  moistening,  if  the  glass  was 
hard  and  did  not  easily  break.  After  the  portions  were  cut  out, 
the  remaining  asperities  were  removed  by  filing  them  with  a kind 
of  iron  tool  or  claw,  and  the  parts  made  to  fit  together  accurately. 

All  the  pieces  of  glass  thus  cut  out  were  then  carried  back,  to 
the  table  upon  which  the  design  was  drawn,  and  each  laid  over 
the  place  it  was  to  occupy.  When  the  enamel  painting  thus  ap- 
plied upon  the  tinted  glass  was  dry,  the  pieces  of  glass  were  car- 


, 

■ 

. 


GLASS. 


283 


; 

ried  to  the  furnace  to  he  burned.  The  burning  finished  and  the 
glass  cooled,  the  different  pieces  composing  the  design  were  again 
put  together  and  fastened  by  strips  of  lead. 

In  the  fourteenth  century,  the  painter  upon  glass  endeavored 
1 to  copy  nature  with  fidelity,  and  sometimes  he  was  successful. 
He  began  to  seek  the  effects  of  chiaroscuro,  to  introduce  lights 
and  shadows  into  the  ornaments  and  draperies.  The  flesh  tints 
are  no  longer  expressed  by  violet-tinted  glasses,  but  painted  upon 
white  glass,  in  a reddish-gray  color,  and  their  models  approach 
| more  nearly  to  nature.  The  pieces  of  glass  are  longer,  the  strips 
of  lead  are  placed  at  wider  intervals,  large  single  figures  become 
more  common,  occupying  an  entire  window,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  century  we  find  them  of  large  dimensions.  These  figures  are 
placed  under  elaborate  canopies,  and  no  longer  on  a mosaic  ground, 
but  one  of  plain  blue  or  red. 

The  consequence  of  this  progress  in  the  art  of  design  is  seen 
in  the  efforts  of  the  glass  painter  to  create  an  individual  work, 
yet  without  an  absolute  neglect  of  the  general  effect  to  be  pro- 
I duced.  If  he  did  not  yet  venture  upon  a design  with  large 
figures,  subject  to  the  rules  of  perspective,  he  gave  up  the  small 
j medallions  filled  with  legendary  subjects. 

In  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  revolution  in  the 
i art  of  painting  upon  glass  was  complete.  The  palette  of  the 
painters  had  been  greatly  enlarged  by  means  of  chemistry,  and 
the  quantity  of  enamel  color  at  their  disposal  enabled  them  to 
give  up  entirely  glass  colored  in  the  mass,  and  to  paint  upon  a 
single  piece  of  white  glass  with  enamelled  colors  laid  upon  its 
surface.  Thenceforth  glass  was  nothing  more  than  the  material 
subservient  to  the  painter,  as  canvas  or  wood  in  oil  painting. 
Glass  painters  went  so  far  as  to  copy  upon  white  glass  as  upon 
canvas,  the  masterpieces  of  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  or  the  other 
great  painters  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  They  executed  small 
pictures  most  highly  finished,  and  attained  to  great  richness  of 
] coloring,  through  their  skilfulness  in  coating  the  enamel  colors 
upon  each  other.  And  the  successive  artists  carefully  preserved, 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  style  of  the 


I 


284 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


large  church  windows  of  the  fifteenth,  by  uniting  with  the  bril- 
liant coloring  of  the  glass,  tinted  in  the  mass,  and  the  coated 
glasses  before  mentioned,  all  the  finish  that  can  be  obtained  on 
the  flesh  tints  and  small  subjects,  by  the  application  of  vitrifiable 
colors  upon  the  surface  of  colorless  glass. 


OUT  AND  pkessed  glass.  face  c.  xviii,  p.  285. 


CHAPTER  XYIII. 


GLASS. 

THE  art  of  cutting  glass  is  supposed  to  date  from  about  1609, 
at  which  time  Caspar  Lehmann,  then  in  the  employ  of  the 
Emperor  Rodolphus  II.  as  a cutter  of  iron  and  steel,  obtained 
from  the  emperor  the  exclusive  right  to  cut  glass,  and  he  also  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  glass-cutter  and  lapidary  to  the  court, 
j Prior  to  that  date,  engraving  on  glass  consisted  of  a few  scratches 
| made  with  a diamond,  and  for  works  of  this  description  the  Vene- 
( tians  of  the  sixteenth  century  enjoyed  a high  reputation  through- 
out Europe.  It  was  long  after  the  period  above  named  that  the 
ij  art  assumed  the  important  position  it  has  since  obtained.  Nu- 
remberg, the  city  of  the  arts,  excelled  in  glass-cutting  during  the 
middle  ages,  and  great  taste  and  ingenuity  are  often  displayed  by 
the  artists  of  the  present  day  in  the  form  and  embellishment  of 
the  various  articles  of  this  description  that  come  from  their 

I hands. 

The  implements  employed  by  the  glass-cutter,  although,  owing 
to  the  great  variety  of  the  work  he  has  to  execute,  they  are  of 
necessity  numerous,  yet  partake  of  the  simplicity  observable 
throughout  the  various  processes  of  the  manufacture.  In  every 
establishment  a shaft  causes  the  revolution  of  numerous  large 

I wheels  or  drums  fixed  thereto,  and  each  of  these,  connected  by  a 
band  with  a pulley  on  the  axle  of  a small  wheel,  occasions  the  lat- 
> , ter  to  revolve  with  great  celerity.  These  small  wheels  are  the 
cutting  instruments.  They  are  all  so  arranged  that  any  one  can 


286 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


be  unfixed  and  another  substituted  in  its  place  without  difficulty. 
As  regards  their  form,  they  are  either  narrow  or  broad,  flat- 
edged,  mitre-edged — that  is,  with  two  faces,  forming  a sharp 
angle  at  the  point  of  meeting — convex  and  concave ; and  of  these 
different  wheels  a great  number  are  always  to  be  found  in  the 
workshop  of  the  glass-cutter. 

The  materials  employed  in  the  formation  of  these  cutting- 
implements  are,  iron,  both  cast  and  wrought,  stone,  and  willow 
wood.  Wrought  iron  is  only  used  for  cutters,  of  the  narrowest 
dimensions,  and  which  it  therefore  would  not  be  possible  to  make 
sufficiently  tough  of  cast  metal.  Iron  wheels  are  only  used  for 
the  first  or  roughest  part  of  the  operation,  and  their  employment 
is  dispensed  with  altogether  where  it  is  intended  that  the  pattern 
shall  be  at  all  minute,  and  the  metal  and  the  sand,  which  must  be 
used  in  connection  with  it,  would  act  too  roughly,  and  frequently 
portions  of  the  glass  would  be  chipped  away.  For  such  minute 
work  a fine-grained  stone,  moistened  with  water,  must  be  used. 
The  further  smoothing  and  subsequent  polishing  of  the  cut  sur- 
faces are  effected  with  wooden  wheels ; for  the  first  of  these  ob- 
jects the  edge  is  dressed  with  either  pumice-stone  or  rotten-stone, 
and  for  imparting  the  highest  degree  of  polish  that  is  required 
for  properly  finishing  the  process,  putty  powder  is  employed. 

Beneath  each  one  of  the  cutting  wheels  a small  cistern  is  fixed 
to  receive  the  sand,  water,  or  powder,  which  has  been  used ; and 
over  the  wheel  a small  keg  or  a conical  vessel  is  placed,  the  cock 
or  opening  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  so  situated  and  regulated 
that  the  requisite  quantity  of  moisture  will  be  imparted  from  it 
to  the  wheel.  The  vessel  which  is  placed  over  the  iron  wheel  is 
furnished  with  fine  sand,  and  into  this  water  is  admitted  in  such 
quantities  as  will  insure  the  constant  delivery  of  the  moistened 
sand  upon  the  face  of  the  wheel,  in  such  proportions  as  the  work- 
man finds  most  desirable.  The  emery  powder,  rotten-stone,  or 
putty  powder,  are  apjdied  from  time  to  time,  as  required  by  the 
workman,  on  the  edge  of  the  smoothing  or  polishing  wheel. 

The  grinder  seats  himself  on  a stool  in  front  of  his  wheel,  and 
taking  in  his  hand  the  glass  to  be  ornamented,  applies  this  to  the 
face  of  the  cutter,  calling  into  requisition  the  steadiness  of  his 


GLASS. 


287 


hand  and  the  correctness  of  his  eye,  in  the  successive  applications 
to  the  wheel  of  those  parts  which  are  to  he  cut.  Placed  at  his 
right  hand,  each  workman  has  a small  tub  containing  water, 
which  he  uses  from  time  to  time  to  wash  away  the  particles  of 
sand  or  powder  which  may  adhere  to  the  glass,  that  he  may  the 
better  judge  as  to  the  progress  of  his  work. 

The  grinding  of  glass,  or  frosting  it,  is  usually  applied  to  the 
inner  surface  of  globes  and  shades  of  lamps,  and  to  effect  this  the 
article  is  fixed  in  a lathe,  and  the  workman,  holding  in  his  hand  a 
piece  of  wood,  which  is  covered  with  wet  sand,  causes  this  to  rub 
with  the  necessary  degree  of  force  against  the  inner  surface  during 
the  rapid  revolution  of  the  glass. 

Ornamental  figures  placed  on  articles  of  glassware,  are  pro- 
duced by  compressing  a portion  of  glass  in  a mould,  and  then 
they  are  attached  to  the  article.  These  designs  are  usually  raised,* 
and  they  have  an  advantage  over  engraving  by  retaining  a polish, 
but  the  edges  are  not  as  clear  and  sharp  as  when  cut  on  the 
wheel ; and  there  is  another  objection — figures  on  glass  ought  to 
be  treated  in  intaglio,  and  not  in  relief. 

Another  method  of  engraving  is  to  employ  fluoric  acid  to  bite 
away  a portion  of  the  surface  of  the  glass,  leaving  the  figure  in 
intaglio  or  in  relief.  F or  the  former  the  whole  surface,  with  the 
exception  of  that  taken  up  by  the  design,  is  covered  with  a var- 
nish, either  a solution  of  isinglass,  or  turpentine  varnish  mixed 
with  a small  proportion  of  white  lead,  and  the  acid  is  then  applied 
to  the  exposed  parts,  which  it  gradually  eats  away  till  the  re- 
quired depth  is  obtained.  If  the  figure  is  to  be  left  in  relief,  then 
the  design  is  traced  with  the  varnish,  and  the  rest  of  the  vessel’s 
surface  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  acid.  By  this  means  the 
figures  are  left  in  relief  with  their  original  polish. 

In  the  six  hundred  and  twenty-fifth  part  of  an  inch,  the  fol- 
lowing words  have  been  engraved  upon  glass : “ Lowell  & Senter, 
watchmakers,  60  Exchange  street,  Portland.  Written  by  Fre- 
mont, at  Paris,  1852.”  This  is  equal  to  forty-six  thousand  eight 
hundred,  and  seventy-five  letters  in  the  circle  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. The  most  powerful  magnifying  glass  reveals  only  a few  ap- 
parent scratches,  but  with  a microscope  of  great  power  the  in- 


288 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


scription  can  be  plainly  read.  The  body  of  an  ordinary  pin, 
placed  between  the  inscription  and  the  microscope,  completely 
covered  the  inscription,  the  circle  in  which  it  is  inscribed  being 
smaller  than  the  head  of  a common  pin. 

But  even  this  has  been  surpassed,  the  Lord’s  Prayer  having 
been  executed  within  the  same  compass ; and  within  the  one  hun- 
dredth part  of  a square  inch,  that  is,  the  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  the  two  hundredth  of  an  inch  in  width,  the  following 
lines  have  been  engraved  : 

“ A point  within  an  epigram  to  find, 

In  vain  you  often  try  ; 

But  here  an  epigram  within  a point 
You  plainly  may  descry.” 

The  process  of  engraving  consists  of  a mechanism  by  which 
the  point  of  the  graver  or  style  is  guided  by  a system  of  levers, 
which  are  capable  of  imparting  to  it  three  motions  in  right  lines, 
which  are  reciprocally  perpendicular,  two  of  them  being  parallel 
and  the  third  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  on  which  the  charac- 
ters  or  designs  are  written  or  engraved. 

Etching  on  crown  glass  is  a very  simple  process.  The  glass 
is  first  heated  in  a sand  bath,  and  then  rubbed  over  with  purified 
bees’-wax,  the  temperature  of  the  glass  being  such  as  to  cause  the 
wax  to  melt  completely  and  uniformly  over  its  surface.  When 
every  part  of  the  plate  is  covered  with  wax,  it  may  be  set  aside 
to  cool.  A paper  having  the  design  boldly  drawn  upon  it,  may 
then  be  attached  to  the  unwaxed  side  of  the  glass,  and  the  work- 
man traces  the  lines  through  the  wax  by  a pointed  instrument, 
care  being  had  that  the  point  clears  all  the  wax  from  the  glass 
wherever  the  design  conies. 

This  done,  some  coarsely-powdered  fluor-spar  must  then  be 
placed  in  a vessel,  together  with  a quantity  of  sulphuric  acid, 
well  mixed  together,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  incorporated,  the 
glass  should  be  placed  over  the  vessel,  the  wax  surface  down- 
ward, when  a moderate  degree  of  heat  must  be  applied  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  fumes  of  fluoric  acid  soon  arise  and 
attack  the  surface  of  the  unprotected  portion  of  the  glass.  In 


GLASS. 


289 


half  an  hour  it  may  he  removed,  washed,  and  the  wax  scraped 
off,  leaving  the  design  perfectly  etched  upon  the  surface  of  the 
glass. 

A process  for  printing  designs  on  glass  by  electricity  has  been 
discovered  by  W.  R.  Grove,  of  London,  inventor  of  the  galvanic 
battery  which  bears  his  name,  and  he  has  given  an  account  of  it 
in  the  Philosophical  Magazine.  Two  plates  of  window  glass, 
about  three  inches  square,  were  dipped  in  nitric  acid,  then  washed, 
and  dried  with  a clean  silk  handkerchief,  and  coated  on  the  outside 
with  pieces  of  tinfoil  a little  smaller  than  the  glass.  A piece  of  a 
printed  handbill  was  laid  between  the  plates  thus  prepared ; the 
tinfoil  coatings  were  connected  with  the  secondary  terminals  of  a 
Ruhmkorff’s  coil,  and  removed  after  a few  minutes  electrization. 
Now,  the  interior  surface  of  the  glass,  when  breathed  on,  showed 
with  great  beauty  the  printed  words  which  had  been  opposite  it, 
these  appearing  as  though  etched  on  the  glass,  or  having  a frosted 
appearance ; even  the  fibres  of  the  paper  were  beautifully  brought 
out  by  the  breath,  but  nothing  beyond  the  margin  of  the  tinfoil. 
These  impressions  were  fixed  by  holding  them  over  hydrofluoric 
acid — powdered  fluor-spar  and  sulphuric  acid  slightly  warmed  in 
a leaden  dish. 

Mr.  Grove  cut  out  of  thin  white  letter  paper  the  word  “Vol- 
ta,” and  placed  it  between  the  plates  of  glass.  They  were  sub- 
mitted to  electrization  as  before,  and  the  interior  surface  of  one 
of  them,  without  the  paper  letters,  was  subsequently  exposed  in 
the  hydrofluoric  acid  vapor ; the  previously  invisible  figures  came 
out  perfectly,  and  formed  a perfect  and  accurate  etching  of  the 
word  Volta,  as  complete  as  if  it  had  been  done  in  the  usual  mode 
by  an  etching  ground.  This,  of  course,  could  be  washed  and 
rubbed  to  any  extent  without  alteration.  The  results  obtained 
give  every  promise  for  those  who  may  pursue  this  as  an  art,  of 
producing  very  beautiful  effects,  enabling  even  fine  engravings  to 
be  copied  on  glass. 

Venetian  glass  balls  are  made  of  a collection  of  waste  pieces 
of  filagree  glass,  conglomerated  together  without  regular  design. 
This  is  packed  in  a pocket  of  transparent  glass,  which  is  adhe- 
sively collapsed  upon  the  interior  mass  by  sucking  up,  producing 
13 


290 


ART-MANUFACTURES . 


put  ward  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  mille  fiore , or  star 
work,  is  more  regular  in  design  than  the  balls,  but  of  the  same 
character.  It  is  formed  by  placing  lozenges  of  glass  cut  from  the 
ends  of  colored  filagree  canes,  ranged  in  regular  or  irregular  de- 
vices, and  incased  in  flint  transparent  glass.  A double  transparent 
glass  cane  receives  the  lozenges  between  the  two  surfaces,  the 
wdiole  is  reheated,  a hollow  disc,  communicating  writh  the  blowing 
iron,  adheres  to  the  neck,  ard  the  air  is  exhausted  or  sucked  out 
of  the  double  case,  producing  the  desired  effect. 

The  manufacture  of  glassware,  with  ornaments  in  filagree  or 
in  colored  thread,  is  no  longer  a secret,  and  now  that  collectors 
have  drawn  attention  to  its  merits,  imitations  have  been  attempted 
by  many  manufacturers,  who,  without  having  yet  attained  to  the 
lightness  and  perfection  of  the  forms  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
have  still  introduced  into  commerce  glasses  of  some  elegance. 

The  vases  with  colored  threads  and  filagree  ornamentations 
are  composed  of  the  assemblage  of  a certain  number  of  small 
glass  canes  of  cylindrical  form,  one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  made  either  of  opaque  white  glass,  of  colored 
glass,  or  of  glass  enclosing  filagree  patterns.  These  canes,  pre- 
pared beforehand,  are  disposed  in  such  order  as  the  glass-maker 
may  choose,  and  are  often  placed  alternately  with  canes  of  plain 
white  glass — that  is,  colorless  and  transparent  glass ; they  are 
wrelded  together  by  fusion  and  blowing,  and  finally  moulded, 
when  they  form  a compact  homogeneous  paste,  convertible,  like 
any  piece  of  ordinary  glass,  into  vases  of  every  form.  As  many 
as  twenty-five  or  thirty,  or  even  forty  canes  may  enter  mto  the 
composition  of  a Venetian  vase;  and  in  order  to  make  a cane  of 
colored  glass,  the  glass-blower  takes,  at  the  end  of  his  blowing 
iron,  the  requisite  quantity  of  glass  from  the  pot  in  which  it  is 
fused,  and  rolls  it  upon  the  marver,  in  order  to  cause  the  sub- 
stance to  adhere  to  his  blowing-iron,  and  to  make  it  into  a cylin- 
drical mass  of  from  two  and  a half  to  three  inches  long,  which  he 
allows  partially  to  cool,  to  give  it  consistency.  He  then  dips 
the  end  of  the  blowing-iron,  charged  with  the  little  column  of 
colored  glass,  into  a melting  pot  containing  ordinary  white  glass, 
in  order  to  surround  the  colored  glass  with  a coating  of  white. 


• A-  ‘ V 


’ 


GLASS  YASES. 


p.  291 


GLASS. 


291 


He  draws  the  blowing-iron  from  the  pot,  and  again  “ marvers  ” 
the  lump  to  make  the  transparent  glass  of  an  even  thickness 
round  the  colored,  and  to  form  of  the  whole  a kind  of  truncated 
column  of  from  two  and  three-quarters  to  three  inches  in  diame- 
ter. This  column  is  then  exposed  to  a strong  heat,  to  weld  the 
layers  together,  and  next  drawn  out  so  as  to  form  a cane  of  from 
one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  centre  of 
which  is  colored,  surrounded  by  a very  thin  surface  of  white 
colorless  glass.  It  is  then  divided  or  “ whetted  off”  into  pieces 
of  different  lengths.  These  little  canes,  thus  prepared  and  modi- 
fied, by  the  flattening  that  takes  place  in  the  making  of  the 
vases,  form  these  simple  threads,  of  various  widths,  with  which  a 
number  of  the  Venetian  vases  are  enriched;  they  are  also  the 
elements  of  the  canes  with  such  varied  filagree  patterns,  of  which 
filagree  vases  are  composed. 

The  manufacture  of  canes  enclosing  filagree  patterns  is  much 
more  complicated,  and  varies  according  to  each  pattern.  It  will 
be  sufficient  to  know,  that  by  placing  in  a given  order  canes  of 
colored  glass,  interspersed  at  greater  or  less  distances,  according 
to  the  pattern  desired,  with  canes  of  plain  white  transparent 
glass,  and  by  placing  these  canes  so  arranged,  either  in  a pocket 
of  soft  white  glass,  or  against  the  sides  of  a cylindrical  mould, 
which  is  then  filled  with  white  melted  glass,  a thick  column  is 
formed,  in  which  the  rods  of  colored  glass  are  distributed,  either 
in  the  ulterior  or  on  the  surface  of  the  white  glass.  This  column, 
which  is  then  taken  to  the  fire,  in  order  to  obtain  a complete  ad- 
herence to  all  the  parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  is  afterwards 
drawn  out  to  form  a little  cane  of  white  glass  of  from  one-eighth 
to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  in  which  the  canes  of  colored 
glass  are  reduced  to  threads  of  extreme  tenuity,  which  twist  in 
varied  patterns  in  the  centre  of  the  newly-obtained  cane,  or  roll 
in  spiral  threads  upon  its  surface,  according  to  the  previous  ar- 
rangements and  the  various  inflections  which  the  workman  may 
have  given  the  material  in  the  act  of  drawing  it  out.  Canes  of 
glass,  with  various  filagree  patterns,  are  here  represented. 

The  glass-maker,  having  provided  himself  with  the  different 
canes  of  colored  filagree,  and  plain  white  glass,  may  now  proceed 


292 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


to  the  fabrication  of  vases.  He  arranges  around  the  inner  surface 
of  a cylindrical  mould  as  many  canes  as  he  requires  to  form  a 
complete  circle  around  the  sides  of  the  mould.  These  canes  are 
fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  mould  by  means  of  a little  soft  earth 
which  has  been  spread  over  it.  The  workman  can  choose  his 
canes  of  various  colors  and  patterns,  forming  so  many  different 
combinations  of  filagree ; he  can  place  them  alternately,  or  can 


intersperse  them  with  canes  of  plain  white  glass.  The  canes, 
thus  arranged,  are  heated  in  the  glass  furnace ; the  glass-maker 
then  gathers,  with  the  blowing-iron,  a small  quantity  of  white 
glass,  to  make  a solid  ball,  with  which  he  fills  up  the  empty  space 
formed  by  the  circle  of  rods  which  cover  the  inner  surface  of  the 
mould ; he  blows  again,  to  make  the  rods  adhere  to  the  ball  of 
plain  glass,  and  takes  it  all  out  of  the  mould.  The  assistant 
workman  instantaneously  applies  upon  the  colored  or  filagree 
canes,  which  are  thus  made  to  form  the  exterior  surface  of  the 
cylindrical  mass,  a string  of  soft  glass,  in  order  to  fix  them  more 
securely  together.  The  piece  being  thus  arranged  at  the  end  of 
the  blowing-iron,  the  glass-blower  carries  it  to  the  mouth  of  the 
furnace  to  soften  it,  to  weld  all  its  parts  together,  and  to  give  it 
sufficient  elasticity  to  yield  to  the  action  of  the  blowing-iron ; he 
then  rolls  it  on  the  marver,  and  when  the  different  canes,  united 
by  blowing  and  manipulation,  have  reached  such  a point  as  to 
constitute  a compact,  homogeneous  mass,  he  cuts  with  a kind  of 
pincers,  a little  above  the  bottom,  so  as  to  unite  the  canes  in  one 
central  point.  The  vitreous  mass  thus  obtained  is  then  treated  by 
the  glass-maker  according  to  the  ordinary  processes,  and  he  makes 
of  it,  according  to  his  taste,  an  ewer,  a cup,  a vase,  or  a goblet, 


GLASS. 


293 


in  which  each  cane,  either  colored  or  with  a filagree  pattern, 
serves  to  form  a stripe. 

If  no  twisted  movement  has  been  given  to  the  vitreous  mass 
in  the  course  of  fabrication,  the  threads  of  colored  glass  on  the 
filagree  designs  remain  in  a straight  line,  proceeding  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  vase  to  the  upper,  or  else  from  the  centre  to  the 
circumference.  If  the  ball,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  slightly 
twisted,  this  twisting  then  imparts  to  the  different  colored  threads 
of  filagree  patterns  which  have  entered  into  the  composition  of 
the  vase,  that  spiral  direction  so  often  met  with  in  specimens  of 
Venetian  glass. 

The  Venetian  glass-makers  succeeded  also  in  making  vases 
composed  of  two  cases  of  sheets  of  glass,  with  simple  colored 
threads,  which  were  twisted  beforehand,  and  then  placed  over 
each  other.  This  super-position,  by  which  the  threads  of  colored 
glass  were  crossed  at  right  angles,  produced  a network  of  opaque 
threads,  which,  in  consequence  of  their  thickness,  leave  between 
each  mesh  of  this  kind  of  net  a small  bubble  of  air,  enclosed  be- 
tween the  two  layers  of  white  glass,  which  form  the  foundation 
of  the  vase.  These  pieces  are,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  per- 
formances of  the  glass-makers  of  Murano. 

The  Venetians  also  made  vases  with  pieces  of  glass  cut  off  the 
ends  of  the  filagree  canes,  the  section  thus  presenting  variously 
colored  stars,  scrolls,  and  other  geometrical  forms.  These  slices 
or  segments  of  canes,  cut  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  were  scat- 
tered between  two  layers  of  white  or  tinted  glass ; the  substance 
was  then  marbled  and  blown  again,  to  form  of  the  whole  a new 
mosaic  mass,  ready  to  be  shaped  into  vases  of  every  description. 

Glass  beads  were  first  manufactured  at  Murano,  and  there 
they  are  still  made  in  great  quantities  for  exportation,  of  every 
size  and  color.  To  effect  this  the  glass  is  drawn  out  in  the  form 
of  tubes,  to  the  length  of  one  hundred  or  two  hundred  feet,  and 
these  are  broken  into  lengths  of  about  two  feet.  Then,  to  give 
the  beads  their  proper  size,  these  strips  are  cut  into  pieces,  each 
of  which  is  in  length  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  tube.  This  is 
done  by  the  aid  of  a knife.  Then  these  little  fragments,  with 
coal  dust  and  powdered  clay,  are  put  into  a revolving  cylinder, 


294 


ART-MANUFACTUEES. 


where  they  are  subjected  to  heat  and  motion,  and  in  this  way  all 
the  rough  and  sharp  edges  are  removed,  and  then  they  are  passed 
through  sieves,  by  which  means  they  are  sorted  to  the  sizes. 

The  glass  beads  made  in  imitation  of  natural  pearls  for  toilet 
ornaments,  the  invention  of  which  dates  from  the  year  1656,  are 
very  different  from  the  above,  both  as  regards  their  application, 
mode  of  production,  and  origin.  These  are  small  solid  glass 
beads,  of  the  same  size  as  native  pearls,  which  they  are  made  to 
resemble  by  a coating  of  varnish,  and  which  gives  them  a peculiar 
pearly  lustre  and  color.  A maker  of  rosaries,  by  the  name  of  Ja- 
quin,  was  the  first  to  discover  that  the  scales  of  a species  of  fish 
communicated  a pearly  hue  to  water.  Based  upon  this  observa- 
tion, glass  globules  were  first  covered  on  the  outside,  but  at  a 
later  period  on  the  inside,  with  this  aqueous  essence.  The  costly 
essence,  however,  of  which  only  a quarter  of  a pound  could  be 
obtained  from  four  thousand  fish,  was  subject  to  one  great  evil, 
that  of  decay.  After  trying  alcohol  without  success,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  destroying  the  lustre  of  the  substance,  sal-ammoniac 
was  at  length  found  to  be  the  best  medium  in  which  to  apply  the 
essence ; a little  isinglass  was  also  mixed  with  it,  which  caused  it  to 
adhere  better.  The  pearls  are  blown  singly  at  the  lamp ; a drop  of 
the  essence  is  then  blown  into  them  through  a thin  tube,  spread 
out  by  rolling,  and  the  dried  varnish  is  then  covered  in  a similar 
manner  with  a layer  of  wax. 

The  scales  of  the  roach  and  dace  are  chiefly  employed  for  this 
purpose,  and  form  a considerable  source  of  profit  to  the  fishermen' 
of  the  Seine,  in  the  environs  of  Corbeil,  who  bring  them  to  Paris 
in  large  quantities  during  the  season.  They  must  be  stripped 
from  the  fish  while  living,  or  the  glistening  hue  which  we  admire 
so  much  in  the  genuine  pearl  cannot  be  imitated. 

Glass  tubes  have  this  singular  property.  If  a tube  of  this  ma- 
terial be  placed  before  the  fire  in  a horizontal  position,  with  its 
extremities  supported,  it  will  acquire  a rotary  motion  around  its 
axis,  moving  at  the  same  time  towards  the  fire,  notwithstanding 
that  the  supports  on  which  it  rests  may  form  an  inclined  plane 
the  contrary  way.  If  it  be  placed  on  a glass  plane,  such  as  a 
piece  of  window  glass,  it  will  move  from  the  fire,  although  the 


GLASS. 


295 


plane  may  incline  in  the  opposite  direction.  If  it  be  placed  stand- 
ing nearly  upright,  leaning  to  the  right  hand,  it  will  move  from 
east  to  west ; if  leaning  to  the  left  hand,  it  will  move  from  west 
to  east,  and  if  it  be  placed  perfectly  upright  it  will  not  move 
at  all.  The  causes  of  these  phenomena  have  never  been  ex- 
plained. 

The  elasticity  of  glass  exceeds  that  of  almost  all  other  bodies. 
If  two  glass  balls  are  made  to  strike  each  other  at  a given  force, 
the  recoil,  by  virtue  of  their  elasticity,  will  be  nearly  equal  to 
their  original  impetus.  Connected  with  its  brittleness  are  some 
very  singular  facts.  Take  a hollow  sphere,  with  a hole,  and  stop 
the  hole  with  the  finger,  so  as  to  prevent  the  internal  and  external 
air  from  communicating,  and  the  sphere  will  fly  to  pieces  by  the 
mere  heat  of  the  hand.  Vessels  made  of  glass  that  have  been 
suddenly  cooled,  possess  the  curious  property  of  being  able  to 
resist  hard  blows  given  to  them  from  without,  but  will  be  in- 
stantly shivered  by  a small  particle  of  flint  dropped  into  their 
cavities.  This  property  seems  to  depend  upon  the  comparative 
thickness  of  the  bottom ; the  thicker  the  bottom  is,  the  more  cer- 
tain of  breakage  by  this  experiment.  Some  of  these  vessels,  it  is 
stated,  have  resisted  the  stroke  of  a mallet,  given  with  sufficient 
force  to  drive  a nail  into  wood ; and  heavy  bodies,  such  as  mus- 
ket balls,  pieces  of  iron,  bits  of  wood,  jasper,  stone,  &c.,  have 
been  cast  into  them  from  a height  of  two  or  three  feet  without 
any  effect ; yet  a fragment  of  flint  not  larger  than  a pea,  dropped 
from  three  inches’  height,  has  made  them  fly. 

Holland  is  supplied  with  gas  through  six-inch  tubes  of  glass, 
which,  though  laid  beneath  the  streets  several  years  since,  have 
not  only  stood  the  ordinary  traffic,  but  have  borne  without  frac- 
ture the  passage  of  heavy  artillery,  dragged  over  them,  to  place 
the  question  of  their  strength  beyond  a doubt. 

There  are  several  accounts  on  record  of  glass  having  been 
made  malleable,  but  they  all  lack  confirmation,  and  no  approach 
has  ever  been  made  to  it  in  modern  times.  A preparation,  called 
“soluble  glass,”  has,  however,  been  made.  For  this  purpose, 
quartz  is  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder,  washed  and  allowed 
to  settle,  when  it  is  again  ground.  Of  this  powder  take  fifteen 


296 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


parts,  ten  parts  of  potash,  and  one  part  of  charcoal,  and  melt  them 
together.  The  mass,  haying  been  purified  by  washing  it  in  cold 
water,  is  boiled  with  five  parts  of  water,  in  which  it  slowly  but 
entirely  dissolves.  This  solution  gelatinizes  on  cooling,  and  dries 
up  when  exposed  to  the  air,  without  absorbing  carbonic  acid  gas, 
into  a transparent  colorless  glass.  One  part  of  quartz  and  two 
of  soda,  for  some  purposes,  appear  to  form  a more  perfect  soluble 
glass. 

The  chief  use  of  this  silicate  is  to  coat  wood,  paper,  &c.,  by 
which  these  and  similar  bodies  are  rendered  much  less  combusti- 
ble. And  when  mixed  with  some  other  substance,  it  forms  an 
efficient  cement.  If  a piece  of  wood  be  covered  with  the  silicate 
of  potash,  or,  still  better,  with  a silicate  made  into  a paste  with 
plaster-of-Paris,  chalk,  or  clay,  it  will  be  found,  if  thrown  into  the 
fire,  that  it  will  only  undergo  combustion  when  the  heat  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  char  it  through  the  vitreous  coating,  and  then 
it  will  only  be  converted  into  charcoal,  as  it  would  be  in  a metal 
vessel. 

A petition  was  recently  presented  in  the  House  of  Lords,  from 
a gentleman  of  the  name  of  Daines,  asking  Parliament  to  inquire 
into  the  merits  of  an  invention  he  had  perfected  and  patented  for 
preventing  from  decay  the  exterior  of  stone  work,  and  rendering 
buildings  impervious  to  the  effects  of  time  and  atmospherical  in- 
fluences; and,  if  satisfied  with  the  result  of  such  an  inquiry,  to 
adopt  the  invention  for  national  purposes.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  who 
presented  the  petition,  stated  that  he  had  received  a certificate, 
of  a highly  satisfactory  nature,  from  Sir  Charles  Barry,  which 
stated  that  the  invention  has  been  applied  to  one  thousand  four 
hundred  square  yards  of  the  exterior  stone  work  of  the  new 
House  of  Parliament,  and,  after  the  test  of  two  years,  exhibited 
the  most  satisfactory  and  successful  results. 

This  preparation  is  obtained  by  dissolving  broken  flints  in  a 
solution  of  caustic  alkali,  at  a temperature  of  three  hundred  de- 
grees Fahrenheit.  A properly  prepared  sand  is  mixed  into  a 
pasty  mass  with  this  solution,  and  while  in  a plastic  state  it  is 
pressed  into  moulds  of  any  form.  In  the  course  of  a short  time 
the  mass  hardens ; it  is  then  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat  to 


' 


r.OIIEMIAN  GLASS 


GLASS. 


297 


drive  off  the  water,  and  the  whole  is  converted  into  a very  co- 
herent sandstone. 

By  this  means  any  kind  of  stone  can  he  imitated,  care  being 
taken  in  selecting  and  preparing  the  mass  which  is  to  be  cemented 
together.  The  facilities  which  this  preparation  offers  for  excel- 
lence in  ornamental  work,  at  a moderate  cost,  are  very  great. 
Figures,  foliage,  and,  indeed,  any  architectural  decoration,  can 
be  produced  most  readily,  and  at  a considerable  saving,  the  labor 
of  cutting  being  entirely  dispensed  with. 

It  is  a curious  point,  in  connection  with  the  cementing  powers 
of  this  dissolved  silica,  that  it  loses  its  solubility  during  the  ope- 
ration. This  is  a very  important  property,  since  it  insures  the 
stone  against  the  influence  of  rain  or  any  atmospheric  influences. 

As  a preventive  of  destruction,  the  surface  of  the  stone  is 
coated  or  saturated  with  the  soluble  mass.  The  mode  of  appli- 
cation is,  to  brush  over  the  exterior  of  the  building  with  the  so- 
lution, and  many  advantages  are  gained  by  repeating  it  several 
times.  If  the  experiment  be  tried  on  a portion  of  a piece  of  Caen 
stone,  it  will  be  found  that  the  unsilicated  portion  will  wash  up 
when  brushed  with  water,  that  it  will  be  attached  by  either  sul- 
phuric or  muriatic  acid,  even  when  much  diluted,  but  that  no 
such  action  will  take  place  over  the  silicated  portion. 

This  soluble  silica  may  be  mixed  with  whitewash  and  applied 
to  walls,  or  even  common  chalk  may  be  mixed  with  it,  and  at 
once  used  as  whiteAvash ; it  will  then  resist  sponging  with  water, 
and  if  applied  to  walls  already  whitewashed,  it  renders  them  very 
adhesive  and  capable  of  resisting  moisture. 

The  success  of  the  coloring  in  Bohemian  glass  depends  upon 
a complete  vitrifaction  of  the  pigment  Avithout  any  irregular  ex- 
tension of  the  color  over  the  matrix.  The  materials  of  Avhich  the 
glass  is  made,  as  far  as  they  can  be  ascertained,  and  they  seem  to 
make  no  secret  of  it,  appear  to  be  the  same  as  those  in  use  in 
England.  The  gold  used  in  ornamenting  the  glass  is  from  the 
purest  ducats,  dissolved  in  strong  acid,  and  the  oil  Avith  which 
the  colors  are  mixed  is  of  turpentine.  All  the  finishing  goes  on 
in  the  little  cottages  by  which  the  furnace  is  surrounded,  and 
Avith  which  the  valleys  and  the  sides  of  the  hills  are  studded.  In 
13* 


298 


ART-MANTJFACTUEES. 


these  the  exquisite  scrolls  and  flowers  which  we  admire  in  the 
best  specimens  of  Bohemian  glass  are  produced  by  men  bearing 
all  the  appearance  of  simple  cotters.  They  are  seldom  provided 
with  more  than  two  very  ordinary  brushes,  a small  one  and  an- 
other of  a larger  size,  and  they  frequently  work  without  any  pat- 
tern or  indicating  lines  upon  the  glass  they  are  painting ; but,  per- 
fect from  habitude,  the  scrolls  and  wreaths,  and  flowers,  come 
out  with  the  same  facility  as  one  traces  a name  on  the  dewy  pane 
of  a window.  Often  the  whole  family  are  brought  up  from  child- 
hood in  painting  and  in  drawing  on  glass,  thus  producing  a race 
of  hereditary  artists. 

Each  cottage,  where  the  painting  and  gilding  go  on,  is  pro- 
vided with  a small  oven,  into  which  the  glass  is  put  to  bake  in 
the  colors,  where  it  is  kept  for  a day  and  allowed  to  cool  down. 
The  white  figures  and  flowers,  when  they  go  into  the  oven,  are 
of  a dark  chrome  color,  but  come  out  pure  white,  as  will  be  ob- 
served on  examining  any  glass  on  which  flowers  of  this  color  are 
painted.  The  gold  also,  when  laid  on,  is  of  a dead  brown,  and 
when  burnt  in,  is  polished,  generally  by  women  of  the  family. 
The  gold  in  many  instances  is  left  unpolished,  and  only  the  stalks 
and  fibres  are  burnished,  which  gives  an  excellent  effect.  Then, 
again,  the  effect  is  produced,  as  in  the  specimens  here  presented, 
by  engraving  on  a glass  of  two  colors.  For  this  purpose  the 
brilliant  ruby  glass,  over  a white  body,  is  frequently  selected,  and 
the  figures  brought  out  by  skilful  hands  are  often  of  exquisite 
beauty. 

Fruit  knives  of  Bohemian  glass  are  now  made  in  Paris.  The 
blade  is  of  a white  crystal,  and  the  handle  is  a happy  mixture  of 
white  and  blue,  or  white  and  claret  colors.  Hitherto  silver 
knives  have  been  thought  indispensable  for  fruit,  but  this  crystal 
novelty  is  likely  to  supersede  them.  They  are  not  only  orna- 
mental for  the  dinner-table,  but  are  more  easily  kept  clear  and 
bright  than  silver. 

The  product  of  the  little  kingdom  of  Belgium,  the  greatest 
glass-producing  country  in  the  world,  is  fifty  million  feet  of  sheet 
glass  annually  : equal  to  twenty-two  thousand  three  hundred  tons, 


GLASS. 


299 


or  twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than  is  made  in  England  of  both 
crown  and  sheet  glass. 

It  was  about  the  year  1790  that  the  first  attempt  to  establish 
a glass  manufactory  on  this  continent  was  made.  It  was  unsuc- 
cessful; but  about  the  year  1800  another  effort  was  made,  and  in 
Boston  the  manufacture  was  established.  From  this  Mr.  Jervis 
dates  the  founding  of  all  the  crown  and  cylinder,  window  and 
flint  glass  works  in  the  Atlantic  States.  Other  companies,  for 
the  manufacture  of  glass,  were  from  time  to  time  formed,  and 
in  1817  the  New  England  Glass  Company  was  established.  The 
Brooklyn  Manufactory  was  established  soon  after  this,  and  the 
founder,  Mr.  Gillerland,  has  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
metal  mixer  in  the  country.  In  1825  the  Sandwich  Flint  Glass 
Manufactory  was  established.  The  weekly  melt  at  that  time  did 
not  exceed  seven  thousand  pounds,  and  the  yearly  products  were 
valued  at  seventy-five  thousand  dollars,  giving  employment  to 

fifty  or  sixty  hands ; now  it  em- 
ploys rising  four  hundred  hands, 
and  its  yearly  products  are  valued 
at  half  a million  of  dollars.  In 
1851  this  company  commenced 
the  manufacture  of  glass  bowls  by 
machinery,  of  a magnitude  far 
exceeding  in  size  and  weight  any 
heretofore  made  by  glass  manu- 
facturers in  this  country.  The 
bowls  weigh  about  sixty  pounds, 
are  twenty-one  inches  high,  and 
twTenty-two  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  top.  They  received  the  name 
of  the  “ Union  Bowl,”  and  being 
made  of  pressed  glass,  were  of- 
fered at  a cheap  rate. 

In  this  country  many  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  and  one  of 
these,  resulting  from  observation 


300 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


and  experience  (which  led  to  the  discovery  that  large  masses  could 
he  melted  at  less  cost  than  the  same  quantity  divided  into  smaller 
parts  and  fused  separately),  is  an  improved  form  of  furnace,  which 
effects  a great  saving  of  fuel.  And  large  sums  have  been  expend- 
ed for  the  introduction  of  machinery  for  facilitating  the  various 
operations  through  which  the  crude  metal  must  pass.  Mould  ma- 
chines, for  the  purpose  of  pressing  glass  into  any  form,  have  revolu- 
tionized the  whole  system  of  flint  glass  manufacture,  and  the  arti- 
cles now  turned  out  by  this  machinery  so  closely  resemble  cut 
glass,  that  the  practised  eye  can  only  detect  the  difference,  and 
the  tendency  has  been  so  to  reduce  the  cost  of  glass  that  its  con- 
sumption has  increased  tenfold.  The  materials  are  all  of  native 
production.  The  pig  lead  is  obtained  from  the  Western  mines, 
ashes  from  various  sources  in  different  states,  and  silex  is  also 
indigenous.  The  materials  consumed  yearly  in  the  manufacture 
of  flint  glass  are  something  near  the  following  estimate : Coal 
for  fuel,  forty-eight  thousand  tons ; silex,  six  thousand  five  hun- 
dred tons ; ashes,  nitre,  &c.,  twenty-five  hundred  tons,  and  lead 
thirty-eight  hundred  tons. 

The  American  Plate  Glass  Company,  Williamsburg,  is  en- 
gaged in  making  plate  glass,  particularly  rough  plates,  for  floors, 
&c.  They  have  a table  for  castings  that  weighs  thirty-two  tons. 
The  fires  are  kept  up  by  Cumberland  coal,  and  are  not  allowed  to 
go  out  till  the  furnaces  are  destroyed,  which  generally  occurs 
after  a year’s  use.  The  pots,  after  a casting,  are  usually  returned 
to  the  furnace  to  be  refilled,  and  they  last  about  a month.  The 
temperature  of  the  establishment  is  above  that  of  ordinary  ther- 
mometers. The  furnace  fires  are  watched,  as  a solar  eclipse, 
through  a dark-colored  glass,  the  intensity  of  the  light  being  un- 
endurable by  the  naked  eye.  The  appearance  of  the  sea  of  glass 
when  poured  upon  the  table,  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  At  first  it 
is  of  a bright  whiteness,  dazzling  to  the  eye ; it  then  rapidly 
changes  to  pink,  scarlet,  crimson,  and  a dark,  murky  red,  streaked 
with  black,  in  which  state  it  is  thrust  into  the  kiln.  Fifty  sec- 
onds from  the  time  the  mass  is  poured  out,  it  is  sufficiently  solidi- 
fied to  permit  it  to  be  pushed  rapidly  upon  a table  having  a 
wooden  surface,  resting  upon  rollers,  which  is  at  once  carried  for- 


' 

I 


■'  / '// 


GLASS. 


301 


ward  in  this  way,  blazing  and  smoking,  to  the  mouth  of  the  kiln, 
in  which  it  must  remain  from  three  to  five  days,  when  it  emerges 
annealed  and  ready  to  be  trimmed. 

The  British  claim  superiority  in  the  pure  crystal  of  their  fabri- 
cations ; the  Bohemians  excel  in  coloring  it,  and  the  French  in 
the  novelty  of  their  combinations  and  appliances.  But  it  is  no 
less  certain  that  American  glass  is  of  remarkable  purity ; and  one 
of  the  British  Commissioners  to  the  United  States  declared,  that 
if  the  New  England  Glass  Company  and  the  Sandwich  Company 
had  sent  specimens  of  their  pressed  glass  to  the  French  Exposi- 
tion, they  would  have  done  themselves  no  little  credit. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


ORNAMENT. 

IF  the  most  effectual  way  to  raise  the  Arts  and  Sciences  to  the 
highest  standard  of  excellence  is,  to  multiply  the  number  of 
those  who  can  observe  and  judge  for  themselves,  then  the  present 
generation  owes  a debt  it  will  hardly  be  able  to  pay  in  the  limited 
time  allotted  to  man  to  work.  Generations  before  us  may  have 
been  equally  remiss,  but  with  the  present  we  have  only  to  do. 
The  settlement  of  a new  country,  the  excitement  attendant  on 
the  formation  of  new  states  and  organizing  a republic,  have  no 
doubt  served  in  a great  measure  to  withdraw  the  attention  from 
objects  calculated  to  refine  and  polish  a nation,  to  the  rougher 
work  of  erecting  log  cabins,  digging  canals,  and  opening  roads. 
But  time  has  insured  to  us  all  that  we  could  desire  in  this  respect. 
The  resources  of  the  country  have  been  developed  beyond  the 
expectations  of  the  most  sanguine,  and  now  the  tendency  is  to  a 
refined  and  luxurious  style  of  living,  for  wdiich  we  have  not  pre- 
pared by  a suitable  course  of  training.  Artists  may  produce  ex- 
cellent designs,  but  they  will  avail  little,  unless  the  taste  of  the 
public  is  sufficiently  cultivated  to  appreciate  them,  and  to  so  de- 
sirable an  end  we  cannot  attain  without  some  knowledge  of  the 
different  schools  of  art,  and  familiarity  with  the  principles  which 
govern  the  work  of  the  best  designers. 

Our  styles  of  ornamental  art  are  all  directly  traceable  to  the 


ORNAMENT. 


303 


Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Roman  originals,  the  principles  of  which, 
though  modified  and  adapted  to  our  wants,  are  the  same  as  when 
first  inculcated  ages  ago.  The  Egyptian  style  was  an  arbitrary 
one,  and  was  governed  by  the  laws  of  the  land,  which  allowed 
but  little  scope  to  the  imagination.  The  artist  expressed  his 
meaning  by  the  most  conventional  treatment  of  natural  objects; 
and  without  resorting  to  other  means  they  have  recorded  the  his- 
tory and  acts  of  their  kings  in  imperishable  characters.  The  use 
of  these  hieroglyphics  has  passed  away,  and  all  that  we  retain  of 
Egyptian  origin,  is  the  zig-zag,  the  lotus,  the  palm,  the  star,  the 
fret,  and  one  or  two  similar  and  equally  symmetrical  arrangements 
of  objects,  valued  for  their  beauty  and  ready  adaptation  to 
various  ornamental  purposes.  The  lotus  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
the  Greek  acanthus,  are  the  two  roots  of  our  leaf  ornaments. 
The  winged  globe,  too,  may  be  numbered  with  the  Egyptian  orna- 
ments that  are  still  retained,  and  the  beetle,  though  seldom  em- 
ployed, is  also  from  the  same  source.  The  art  of  the  Egyptians 
was  grand,  simple,  and  imposing,  and  where  a gorgeous  elfect 
was  desired,  it  was  secured  by  a free  use  of  gold,  precious  stones, 
and  ivory,  all  of  which  were  within  their  reach. 

The  art  of  the  Grecians  was  highly  ornamental,  and  that  of 
the  Egyptians  was  expanded  under  their  influence : thus,  the  col- 
umn of  the  Egyptians  was  made  to  represent  a bundle  of  reeds, 
while  that  of  the  Grecians  was  marked  for  its  solidity,  graceful 
proportions,  and  richness  of  decorations.  Thus  the  shaft  that  we 
employ  to-day  comes  to  us  from  the  old  Grecians,  and  Rome  con- 
tributed the  arch,  which  the  Arabs  pointed  and  foliated.  All  our 
ideas  of  architecture,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  are  derived  from 
Greece,  and  although  forms  of  beauty  were  there  introduced,  for 
their  own  sake,  for  ornamental  purposes,  the  arrangement  of  these 
was  not  permitted  to  expand  beyond  a narrow  limit,  an  evidence 
of  which  will  be  found  in  the  conventional  treatment  of  the  anthe- 
mion  (the  Greek  honeysuckle)  and  other  similar  objects,  known 
as  Grecian  ornaments.  These  were,  in  turn,  made  available  by 
the  Romans,  who  freely  used  all  Grecian  details,  adding  to,  en- 
riching, and  expanding  the  whole,  until  they  produced  a style  of 
gorgeous  magnificence.  The  Athenians  passed  a law  that  none  who 


304 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


were  not  of  a liberal  birth  should  practise  the  arts ; this  was  done 
to  secure  the  elevated  tone  which  still  marks  all  the  monuments  of 
Greece ; but  the  Romans  availed  themselves  of  the  aid  of  all  who 
were  ingenious  and  inventive,  and  whatever  tended  to  develop  a 
taste  for  art  received  their  approbation.  Of  invention,  compara- 
tively, they  knew  little,  nor  was  this  quality  for  the  growth  of  or- 
namental art  absolutely  necessary  with  them,  seeing  that  Greece 
offered  a store  of  details  which  they  could  use  to  advantage,  with 
the  exercise  of  a proper  degree  of  taste  and  judgment.  They  had 
an  eye  to  effect,  were  skilful  in  adapting  to  their  own  use  what- 
ever fell  into  their  hands  in  their  wars  with  other  nations,  and  the 
adornment  of  the  Capitol  was  one  of  the  chief  glories  of  the  Ro- 
man. This  Gibbon  particularly  refers  to  in  one  of  his  finest  pas- 
sages.* 

The  change  that  came  over  the  civilized  world  when  the 

* Augustus  was  accustomed  to  boast  that  he  had  found  his  Capitol  of  brick, 
and  that  he  had  left  it  of  marble.  The  strict  economy  of  Vespasian  was  the 
source  of  his  magnificence.  The  works  of  Trajan  bear  the  stamp  of  his  genius. 
The  public  monuments  with  which  Hadrian  adorned  every  province  of  the  em- 
pire, were  executed  not  only  by  his  orders,  but  under  his  immediate  inspection. 
He  was  himself  an  artist,  and  he  loved  the  arts,  as  they  conduced  to  the  glory 
of  the  monarch.  They  were  encouraged  by  the  Antonines,  as  they  contributed 
to  the  happiness  of  the  people.  But  if  the  emperors  were  the  first,  they  were 
not  the  only  architects  of  their  dominions.  Their  example  was  universally  imi- 
tated by  their  principal  subjects,  who  were  not  afraid  of  declaring  to  the  world 
that  they  had  spirit  to  conceive  and  wealth  to  accomplish  the  noblest  undertak- 
ings. Scarcely  had  the  proud  structure  of  the  Coliseum  been  dedicated  at 
Rome,  before  the  edifices  of  a smaller  scale,  indeed,  but  of  the  same  design  and 
materials,  were  erected  for  the  use  and  at  the  expense  of  the  cities  of  Capua  and 
Verona.  The  inscription  of  the  stupendous  bridge  of  Alcantara  attests  that  it 
was  thrown  over  the  Tagus  by  the  contributions  of  a few  Lusitanian  communi- 
ties. When  Pliny  was  intrusted  with  the  government  of  Bithynia  and  Pontus, 
provinces  by  no  means  the  richest  and  most  considerable  of  the  empire,  he  found 
the  cities  within  his  jurisdiction  striving  with  each  other  in  every  useful  and  or- 
namental work  that  might  deserve  the  curiosity  of  strangers  or  the  gratitude  of 
their  citizens.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  pro-consul  to  supply  their  deficiencies,  to 
direct  their  taste,  and  sometimes  to  moderate  their  emulation.  The  opulent 
senators  of  Rome  and  the  provinces  esteemed  it  an  honor,  and  almost  an  obliga- 
tion, to  adorn  the  splendor  of  their  age  and  country ; and  the  influence  of  fash- 
ion very  frequently  supplied  the  want  of  taste  or  generosity. 


ORNAMENT. 


305 


Christian  religion  was  first  promulgated,  early  affected  art,  and 
the  forms  that  were  so  conspicuous  in  temples  devoted  to  pagan 
worship  were,  without  regard  to  the  purity  of  style,  thrust  aside ; 
new  symbols  were  adopted,  and  in  place  of  ornaments  valued 
chiefly  for  their  exquisite  forms,  there  was  a resort  to  color ; and 
this  rather  as  a necessity,  to  express  a love  for  decorations  that 
the  reformation  could  not  wholly  obliterate.  This  was  the  By- 
zantine style,  which  was  a school  of  transition  from  ancient  art, 
that  sought  the  beautiful  merely  for  the  form  itself,  to  Christian 
art,  which  used  the  form  to  express  an  idea.  And  the  Byzantine 
was  eventually  merged  in  the  Saracenic  and  Gothic  styles.  The 
Byzantine  artists  indicated  the  importance  of  the  persons  they 
painted  by  the  size  of  the  figure.  The  saints  increase  in  size  as 
they  increase  in  holiness,  and  Christ  is  taller  than  all  by  a head 
and  shoulders.  All  Byzantine  ornaments  are  strictly  convention- 
al, and  its  leading  architectural  features  are  the  trefoil  and  quatre- 
foil — the  one  referring  to  the  Trinity  and  the  other  to  the  four 
Evangelists — the  cross  and  the  dome.  The  Saracenic  is  made  up 
of  an  infinite  play  of  light  and  shade,  produced  by  geometric 
lines,  and  an  endless  variety  of  forms  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom— the  Mohammedan  religion  prohibiting  the  introduction  of 
figures  into  any  work  of  art — a loss  that  is  compensated  for  in  a 
great  measure  by  the  beauty  of  their  delicate  arabesques.  Where 
the  design  is  fully  carried  out  the  effect  is  remarkable,  and  it  is 
now  frequently  resorted  to  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  Vene- 
tians saw  the  beauty  of  the  leading  lines  and  details  of  the  Ara- 
bian houses,  and  many  of  these  they  adopted  ; and  while  we  fre- 
quently admire  the  objects  of  ornamental  art  placed  within  our 
reach,  vTe  are  not  always  aware  that  the  embellishment  we  value 
so  highly  is  derived  from  the  same  source.  The  Gothic  style  is 
essentially  pointed  and  geometric,  presenting  an  infinite  repetition 
of  conventional  forms,  united  with  exact  imitation  of  natural  ob- 
jects. It  is  displayed  chiefly  in  ecclesiastical  edifices,  and  its  most 
striking  characteristics  are,  its  spires  and  pinnacles,  pointed 
arches,  vaulted  roofs,  clustered  pillars,  large  buttresses,  profusion 
of  ornament,  and  a predominance  of  the  perpendicular  over  the 
horizontal.  It  flourished  chiefly  in  the  north  of  Europe,  but  in 


306 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


the  sixteenth  century  it  fell  into  disuse,  and  after  a long  rest  it 
has  been  revived  with  great  spirit  and  energy. 

The  three  last  named  styles,  the  Byzantine,  Saracenic,  and 
Gothic,  sprang  from  the  three  original  styles  already  alluded  to, 
and  again  there  was  a change  effected  at  the  commencement  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  known  as  “ La  Renaissance,”  or  revival 
of  art,  and  a return  to  Grecian  and  Roman  ideas  of  beauty,  as  ex- 
pressed in  works  that  have  been  preserved  to  us  of  the  best  pe- 
riods of  art  in  those  countries.  The  reformation  went  through 
several  gradations — the  Trecento  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the 
Quattrocento  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Cinquecento  in  the 
early  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  subsequently  the  Louis 
Quatorze,  the  Louis  Quinze,  and  the  Rococo — the  last  being  the 
degenerate  period  of  a revival  that  found  its  highest  development 
in  the  Cinquecento. 

The  extravagance  of  the  rococo  cannot  be  better  illustrated 
than  by  referring  to  an  engraving  of  an  elaborately  carved  console 
table,  of  Genoese  work,  here  introduced,  the  excessive  ornament- 
ation of  which  is  the  more  apparent  when  brought  in  contact  with 
the  harmony  and  good  taste  displayed  in  the  extension  table  op- 
posite, which,  we  are  happy  to  say,  is  of  American  workmanship. 
The  ornaments  of  the  latter  are  appropriate  and  well  conceived ; 
the  parts  are  harmonious,  and  while  the  general  impression  is  one 
of  pleasure,  we  feel  also  that  it  may  be  put  to  a daily  use  with 
comfort  and  convenience  to  all.  The  console  table,  on  the  con- 
trary, was  evidently  designed  with  reference  to  a gaudiness  of 
effect,  and  an  elaboration  of  ornaments,  heaped  one  upon  another 
to  an  excess  positively  painful.  All  ideas  of  utility  are  lost  sight 
of ; the  designer  seems  to  have  set  no  value  on  unadorned  sur- 
faces, and  the  construction  is  every  where  covered  up  and  inter- 
fered with,  with  the  exception  of  the  portion  of  the  legs  which 
necessarily  bears  the  greatest  amount  of  strain,  and  that  is  worked 
down  to  the  smallest  possible  dimensions,  confirming  on  closer 
inspection  the  first  impression,  that  in  point  of  utility  it  is  wholly 
worthless,  and  for  a purely  ornamental  purpose  it  is  equally  ob- 
jectionable, seeing  that  it  sets  at  defiance  all  our  views  of  what 
i v ally  constitutes  the  beautiful  in  this  as  in  other  matters  of  taste. 


CONS01  E TABLE. 


EXTENSK  N TABIE. 


r,  7 


TABl.K  TOP — CAItVKD  WOOD. 


TABLE  TOP — (PAINTED  POUOETiAIN).  p.  307. 


. . 

; 

% 

' 

. 

' 


ORNAMENT. 


30V 


The  Renaissance  was  the  grafting  of  all  that  was  beautiful, 
genial,  and  intellectual  in  the  antique  development  on  the  com- 
plete and  well-organized  system  of  Christian  art.  It  dates  from 
about  the  Venetian  conquest  in  1204.  Its  highest  development, 
as  already  stated,  was  in  the  sixteenth  century.  That  of  the  four- 
teenth century  consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  conventional  scroll 
work  and  foliage.  The  introduction  of  exact  natural  imitations  was 
the  characteristic  of  the  fifteenth  century ; but  these  details  Avere 
treated  strictly  in  accordance  Avith  the  laws  of  symmetry  in  their 
arrangement.  At  this  period  was  also  introduced  that  peculiar 
and  arbitrary  form  of  pierced  and  scrolled  shields,  or  cartouches, 
as  illustrated  in  the  Iliad  Salver,  page  186,  which  eventually  be- 
came the  most  'characteristic  details  of  the  Renaissance,  except 
during  the  short  period  of  the  prevalence  of  the  Cinquecento,  when 
they  were  generally  discarded,  as  Avas  every  element  not  found  in 
ancient  examples.  Greater  license  was  used  ip  the  Louis  Quatorze 
style ; color  Avas  less  frequently  resorted  to,  and  the  stucco  of 
that  period  was  employed  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  every  thing 
else,  till  it  was  finally  debased  in  the  Louis  Quinze  and  the  Roco- 
co, in  which,  as  Ave  have  already  shown,  there  is  a florid  and  ex- 
travagant development  of  the  previous  mannerism,  sometimes 
characterized  by  a picturesque  irregularity  of  details,  ahvays 
scorning  rules,  and  making  use  of  natural,  conventional,  and  mon- 
strous forms  at  will. 

One  of  the  first  principles  of  decorative  art  is,  that  in  all  man- 
ufactures, ornament  must  hold  a place  subordinate  to  that  of 
utility ; and  when,  by  its  exuberance,  ornament  interferes  with 
utility,  it  is  misplaced  and  vulgar.  This  has  already  been  shoAvn 
in  the  console  table,  but  the  importance  of  the  subject  will  war- 
rant us  in  turning  to  it  again,  and  Ave  here  present  two  table  tops, 
which  exemplify  it  to  a remarkable  degree.  The  first  is  of  SAviss 
workmanship,  and  the  material  is  a very  light  colored  Avood, 
carved  with  great  delicacy  and  much  spirit.  The  second  is  of 
French  porcelain,  and  forms  the  top  of  a small  ornamental  table, 
mounted  in  bronze  richly  gilt,  and  given  on  page  189. 

ISToav  a table,  of  all  things,  should  have  utility  to  recommend 


308 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


it  to  our  notice,  and  when  it  ceases  to  be  available  for  the  ordi- 
nary purposes  to  which  such  a piece  of  furniture  is  put,  it  is  ren- 
dered worthless  in  our  sight,  or  no  better  than  a toy.  Here, 
then,  is  a table,  carved  in  wood,  with  figures  in  high  relief  on  its 
surface.  It  matters  not  how  well  the  carver  has  done  his  part ; 
the  grapes,  the  leaves,  and  the  flowers  may  be  admirably  treated, 
but  the  utility  of  the  table  is  destroyed,  for  no  one  could  place 
securely  on  it  a pitcher  or  a dish ; and  even  if  it  could  be  made 
available,  daily  use  would  destroy  the  finer  and  more  prominent 
points  of  the  design,  and  the  irregularities  of  the  surface  wTould 
soon  be  disfigured  with  dust,  which  could  not  readily  be  removed. 
In  a word,  the  artist  has  wasted  his  time  and  misapplied  his  tal- 
ents. The  carving  of  the  standard  is  wTell  enough,  for  that  is  the 
appropriate  place  for  this  style  of  ornament,  but  it  must  be  mani- 
fest that  the  top  of  the  table  should  remain  unadorned  if  the 
artist  has  nothing  but  his  cutting  tools  to  resort  to,  when  he 
would  improve  its  appearance. 

In  the  porcelain  table  top  these  difficulties  are  obviated.  In 
that  we  have  a perfectly  smooth  and  flat  surface — -just  such  a sur- 
face as  a table  top  should  present — and  yet  it  is  rich  in  elaborate 
decorations.  The  vines  and  flowers,  far  more  beautifully  wrought, 
are  there ; no  dust  can  disfigure  its  face,  no  heat  warp  it,  and  no 
ordinary  acid  that  might  possibly  be  spilt  upon  its  surface  will 
disfigure  it ; all  ordinary  wear  it  will  stand,  and  for  generations 
it  may  be  preserved  without  deteriorating  in  value.  But  still  it 
is  open  to  criticism,  and  the  point  to  which  we  call  attention  is  too 
little  regarded ; it  is  that  of  placing  figures  in  a position  where 
they  are  liable  at  all  times  to  be  viewed  upside  down,  the  effect 
of  which  will  be  quite  apparent  by  reversing  the  engraving  for  a 
moment.  If  figures  are  placed  on  a flat  surface  which  is  intended 
to  remain  horizontal,  the  difficulty  we  speak  of  is  unavoidable, 
unless  it  is  approached  only  on  one  side.  The  effect  of  this  we 
see  in  plates,  dishes,  salvers,  etc.  It  is,  however,  unnecessary  to 
resort  to  this  mode  of  decorating  such  articles,  for  the  same  space 
could  be  filled  with  some  fitting  design  that  would  appear  equally 
well  from  all  points.  One  can  readily  call  to  mind  a variety  of 
ornaments  of  this  kind  at  the  disposal  of  the  designer,  particularly 


ORNAMENT. 


309 


arabesque  patterns,  which  would  answer  the  purpose  well,  and 
save  the  annoyance  of  either  having  to  turn  the  article  or  rest 
satisfied  with  seeing-  the  figures  standing  on  their  heads.  Nor  is 
this  objection  confined  to  the  articles  named,  for  many  of  our 
carpets  and  rug  patterns  require  us  to  step  over  bridges,  birds, 
trees,  and  even  mountains,  all  of  which  are  introduced  with  about 
as  much  taste  as  is  displayed  in  the  feeble  attempts  of  the  Chinese 
to  embellish  whatever  comes  from  their  hands. 

And  here  we  offer  other  examples  of  a want  of  due  considera- 
tion of  the  end  that  should  be  had  in  view  in  designing  articles  of 
daily  use,  choosing  for  the  purpose  a number  of  tea-cups.  These 
are  often  rich  and  costly,  and  frequently  they  are  overloaded  with 
ornament  and  gilding,  heavily  moulded,  and  clumsy  in  shape. 
The  first  that  we  offer  are  from  the  Royal  Prussian  Porcelain 
Manufactory,  and  they  have  some  of  these  peculiarities.  The  one 
on  the  left  is  prettily  ornamented  with  sprigs  imitating  red  coral, 
the  effect  of  which  is  very  agreeable ; but  the  form  of  the  cup  is 
such  as  would  defy  one  to  get  at  the  contents  without  inverting 
it.  A love  of  variety  alone  could  have  tempted  the  designer  thus 
to  sacrifice  utility  to  novelty.  Purity  of  form  should  have  first 
commanded  his  consideration,  and  however  skilful  the  execution, 
his  work,  lacking  this  quality  of  fitness  of  form  to  the  end,  can 
meet  with  no  commendation. 

And  these  remarks  apply  equally  well  to  the  cup  on  the  right, 
the  decorations  of  which  are  too  heavy  and  massive,  conveying 
the  impression  that  an  unnecessary  quantity  of  material  was  em- 
ployed in  its  construction,  which  is  made  to  assume  a metallic 
appearance  through  an  excess  of  gilding.  The  whole  is  badly 
conceived,  and  the  introduction  of  the  form  of  a serpent  for  a 
handle  is  not  in  good  taste.  All  ornament,  if  inappropriate,  is 
out  of  place,  and  we  cannot  imagine  how,  or  under  what  circum- 
stances, a snake  could  be  found  clinging  to  the  sides  and  peering 
into  a porcelain  tea-cup.  The  introduction,  then,  of  this  much- 
used  ornament  in  this  place,  must  be  set  down  to  the  love  of  nov- 
elty already  referred  to. 

The  two  cups  here  introduced  are  in  better  taste  ; the  decora- 
tions are  delicate  and  becoming,  and  we  have  the  impression,  par- 


310 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


ticularly  in  the  one  on  the  right,  that  the  material  is  in  reality 
what  it  seems.  The  rim  on  the  top  of  the  one  on  the  left  is  very 
objectionable,  however,  resembling  in  this  particular  a flower 
vase ; and  as  a cup,  it  would  certainly  be  awkward  to  drink  from, 
but  the  arrangement  of  the  ornaments  is  superior,  seeing  there  is 
a more  equal  distribution  of  the  adorned  and  unadorned  surfaces. 


The  importance  of  maintaining  a just  balance  between  the  sur- 
faces that  are  to  receive  ornaments  and  those  which  should  re- 
main plain,  can  hardly  be  over-estimated ; and  although  the  ne- 
cessity of  such  a measure  may  not  always  be  apparent,  the  want 
of  it  will  certainly  be  felt,  even  if  that  feeling,  through  a lack  of 
culture,  is  not  fully  defined.  In  the  tea  service  here  presented, 
from  the  Prussian  manufactory,  it  is  illustrated.  Apart  from  its 
quadrangular  form,  which  is  not  agreeable,  it  conveys  an  imper- 
fect idea  of  the  designer’s  meaning ; the  impression  is  a confused 
one,  and  the  eye  instinctively  wanders  over  the  elaborately 
adorned  surface  for  a spot  on  which  the  eye  may  pause  and  rest ; 
but,  finding  nothing  but  a gaudy  painted  vignette  in  every  panel, 
and  a blaze  of  gilding  above  and  below,  it  will  turn  to  the  set 
here  presented  with  a feeling  of  relief. 

This  last  is  from  the  Sevres  Porcelain  Manufactory.  Here 
there  is  harmony  in  all  the  parts  ; the  lights  and  shades  are  bal- 
anced ; the  serpent  handle  on  the  preceding  page  gives  place  to 
one  in  imitation  of  a bent  reed,  and  gaudy  paintings  are  exchanged 
for  the  honeycomb,  which  reveals  in  part  the  delicate  pink  shade 
of  the  inner  surface.  The  cups  may  be  used  without  having  to 


TEA  SERVICE BERLIN  PORCELAIN.  p.  310 


. 


' 


ORNAMENT. 


311 


invert  them  to  secure  their  contents,  and  the  tray  is  charmingly 
embellished  with  little  sprigs  scattered  over  its  surface,  just  as 
they  might,  have  been  dropped  there  by  some  hand.  There  is 
nothing  of  monotony  in  the  design;  the  adornment  of  the  cups  is 


unlike  that  of  the  cream-pot,  which  has  a pattern  distinct  from 
the  sugar-bowl  and  teapot,  and  the  panels  of  these,  too,  are  dis- 
similar, while  throughout  the  whole  there  is  a connection  that 
would  be  injured  if  any  one  part  were  missing.  This  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  system  employed  at  the  Sevres  manufactory,  where  the 
utmost  care  is  taken  to  perfect  every  design.  Preliminary  stu- 
dies for  the  composition  are  first  made ; the  lights,  shades,  etc., 
are  all  decided  upon ; then  a drawing  follows  in  tempera  for  an 
arrangement  of  colors,  and  subsequently  an  elaborately  finished 
oil  painting  of  the  whole,  as  it  will  appear  when  completed.  Is  it 
at  all  surprising  that  those  who  labor  only  for  the  moment,  or  to 
give  expression  to  some  crude  idea  of  the  beautiful,  fail  to  pro- 
duce works  equally  worthy  of  attention?  Nor  is  it  a difficult 
matter  to  illustrate  this.  Here  are  two  vases  (on  which  much 
time  and  labor  have  been  expended)  as  widely  separated  as  the 
poles.  The  one  on  the  right  is  from  the  porcelain  manufactory  of 
Limoges,  France  ; and  if,  as  we  have  before  stated,  decorations 
must  be  subservient  to  the  outline,  and  not  impertinences  chal- 
lenging attention,  then  the  exuberance  here  displayed  must  be 


312 


ART-MAXUFACTXJEES. 


condemned.  The  foliated  border,  which  is  wholly  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  vase,  is  carried  to  excess,  and  the  figures  in 
the  vignette  are  thus  made  to  appear  miserably  small.  The 
mouth  of  the  vase  is  inexpressive  of  any  thing  save  a ragged 
edge,  and  the  surface  every  where  is  covered  with  some  device, 
evidently  designed  to  hide  the  whole  exterior.  Quintilian  says  a 
work  of  art  has  a silent  and  uniform  address,  which  penetrates  so 
deeply  into  our  inmost  affections  that  it  seems  often  to  exceed  the 
power  of  eloquence ; but  here  we  have  no  clear  conception  of  the 
artist’s  meaning,  for  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  any  message 
to  deliver,  and  so  he  has  cast  forth  the  vagaries  of  a mind  that 
could  never  have  been  properly  trained. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  companion  vase,  and  see  how  differ- 
ent will  be  the  impression.  The  artist  well  knew  that  the  Gre- 
cians had  grace  in  every  thing,  and  that  taste  and  utility  are  al- 
ways combined  in  their  work;  he  could  not,  therefore,  err  in 
studying  the  best  examples  of  Grecian  vases,  and  the  result  we 
see  in  the  form  of  the  one  before  us,  which,  although  not  a servile 
imitation,  is  based  on  well-known  models  of  excellence.  Having 
accomplished  this  much,  it  is  not  likely  that  he  would  cover  up, 
or  hide  in  any  way,  the  form  that  had  cost  him  so  much  time  to 
perfect ; and  in  preparing  to  decorate  it  he  remembers  the  rule — 
that  all  good  ornament  has  its  origin  in  the  works  of  nature,  and 
the  best  will  be  that  which  is  suggestive  of  its  origin — he  turns 
to  the  field  and  gathers  a few  poppies,  with  their  leaves  and  buds. 
These  were  enough  for  his  purpose,*  and  remembering  also  that 
figures  and  flowers,  when  employed  on  a vase,  should  not  be  iso- 
lated, but  in  a continuous  band,  he  weaves  them  into  a wreath  so 
as  to  display  all  their  varied  forms — buds,  blossoms,  opening 
flowers  and  leaves,  all  intertwined  together.  And  then,  his  mind, 
evidently  still  dwelling  on  the  models  he  had  studied  in  forming 
his  vase,  he  heightens  the  effect  of  his  work  by  introducing  a few 
Renaissance  scrolls,  to  adorn  its  base  and  shoulders,  above  which 
there  is  another  wreath  of  flowers,  more  delicate  in  form  and 


* Ruskin  says  there  is  beauty  enough  in  one  flower  to  furnish  ornament  for 
a score  of  cathedrals. 


VAHKS I.IMOGES  & SfcVKKS  P0I?0TCOT^. 


I 


l 


t 


ORNAMENT. 


313 


arranged  in  a more  simple  manner,  to  fit  them  for  the  place  they 
are  intended  to  adorn.  Still  there  is  space  unoccupied,  but  see 
if  there  is  a spot  on  which  a leaf  or  scroll  could  be  placed  with- 
out injury  to  the  whole,  or  if  more  in  the  way  of  ornament  would 
not  be  dearly  bought  at  the  sacrifice  of  any  portion  of  the  una- 
dorned surface. 

Nor  are  the  examples  we  have  given  rare;  on  the  contrary, 
they  may  be  found  in  every  collection  of  articles  making  any  pre- 
tension to  artistic  adornment ; but,  unfortunately,  the  poorer 
specimens  predominate,  and  when  we  find  one  that  is  really  ele- 
gant, a hundred  are  conspicuous  through  their  uncouth  shapes 
and  vulgar  display  of  the  most  florid  coloring.  Take,  for  in- 
stance, the  vase  on  the  left ; was  there  ever  any  thing  more  ugly 
in  this  way,  and  would  it  be  possible  for  any  one  to  say  at  a 
glance  what  it  is  or  what  it  was  designed  for?  We  think  not, 
for  it  sets  at  defiance  every  rule  of  proportion,  and  it  could  be 
put  to  no  earthly  use  other  than  as  a sign  in  a crockery  shop,  to 
catch  the  eye  of  those  who  delight  in  startling  effects.  Compare 
it  with  the  vase  on  the  right,  a genuine  work  of  art,  and  see  how 
infinitely  superior  the  latter  is  to  it,  how  beautifully  it  is  por- 
tioned, how  equally  it  is  divided  into  light  shade,  and  what  an 
air  of  refinement  marks  even  the  smallest  detail  of  its  elaborate 
finish.  Yet  the  modelling  of  the  one  on  the  left,  so  crude  in  form 
and  so  inexpressive  in  all  its  parts,  probably  cost  quite  as  much 
labor  as  its  refined  and  elegant  companion ; for  the  very  effort  to 
produce  an  extravagant  effect  involves  the  uneducated  hand  in  a 
world  of  trouble.  At  the  start  the  designer  had  no  definite  plan 
on  which  to  work ; he  had  never  studied  the  rules  of  proportion, 
and  valuing  only  that  which  is  showy,  he  worked  at  random,  dis- 
torting the  form  of  his  vase  at  every  touch,  heaping  ornament  on 
ornament  without  a purpose,  and  heightening  the  whole  by  crude 
and  glaring  colors,  and  an  excess  of  gilding ; believing,  no  doubt, 
that  the  novelty  of  the  design  would  compensate  for  its  lack  of 
meaning.  Nor  does  the  evil  end  here.  Uneducated  in  matters 
of  taste,  and  surprised  at  what  he  may  possibly  deem  his  success, 
he  multiplies  the  number  of  copies,  each  of  which  serves  to  check 
the  growth  of  a refined  feeling  for  the  really  beautiful,  and  thus 
14 


314 


AET-MANTJFACTITRES. 


such  works  are  a positive  injury.  They  satisfy  the  many  who  are 
governed  by  the  market  value  of  the  article  before  them,  just  as 
the  tub-maker,  of  Tottenham  Court,  called  on  Constable  to  know 
if  he  had  a damaged  picture  which  he  would  let  him  have  cheap, 
as  he  was  fitting  up  a room  up  one  pair  of  stairs ; but  they  cannot 
create  a taste  for  works  of  a higher  order.  And  for  this  manu- 
facturers are  sometimes  to  blame.  They  find  it  easier  to  avoid 
all  changes  for  the  better  in  the  style  of  their  goods,  where  that 
change  demands  an  increased  amount  of  care,  and  is  followed  by 
a closer  inspection  of  their  work ; this  is  the  reason  why  they 
avail  themselves  of  few  of  the  opportunities  to  improve  the  work 
of  designers,  and  they  are  equally  remiss  in  not  endeavoring  to 
elevate  them  to  a higher  standard  of  excellence.  Such  an  one 
would  probably  do  all  in  his  power  to  avoid  any  advance  in  mat- 
ters of  taste ; or,  rather,  he  would  prefer  to  keep  the  public  mind 
in  abeyance  to  his  - own,  by  modifying  every  design  that  comes 
into  his  hands,  in  a manner  not  unlike  that  described  in  these 
words  by  Dickens : 

44  A great  manufacturer,  with  whom  our  firm  often  had  large 
dealings,  dined  with  us  last  week.  He  knew  of  these  schools 
(schools  of  design),  and  showed  us  a beautiful  design  for  a carpet, 
which  he  had  obtained  from  one  of  them,  in  which  the  colors 
were  all  finely  harmonized.  4 It  will  sell  very  well,’  said  he, 
4 after  I have  altered  it  a little  to  my  own  taste.’  4 Why,  what 
will  you  do  with  it  ?’  I inquired.  4 1 must  vulgarize  it ,’  said  he^ 
touching  my  elbow ; 4 where  they  have  put  gray , I shall  put  scar- 
let ; and  where  you  see  purple  here,  I shall  put  green  and  yellow, 
or  such  like ! ’ Another  manufacturer,  whose  warehouse  I was 
visiting  only  the  other  day,  showed  me  a table  cover,  of  a most 
chaste  and  handsome  design,  a broad,  rich,  gothic  border,  with  a 
dark  centre  quite  plain,  which,  of  course,  made  the  deep  border 
look  all  the  richer.  4 This  is  very  good,’  said  he,  4 but  we  always 
like  something  catching  in  the  centre.  I shall  have  a good  bunch 
of  peony  roses  and  tulips,  or  something  of  that  sort,  for  the  mid- 
dle.’ ” 

The  perverseness  that  takes  pleasure  in  vulgarizing  a pattern 
is  easily  illustrated,  for  examples  are  to  be  found  on  every  hand, 


’ 

' 

JUG  IN  PARIAN 


74 


ORNAMENT. 


315 


but  it  is  not  likely  that  one  embodying  more  that  is  really  objec- 
tionable than  the  jug  here  present  could  be  produced ; and  we 
question  if  many  could  be  found  who,  at  first  sight,  could  say 
what  it  was  intended  for;  we  can  assure  the  reader,  however, 
that  it  is  a Parian  jug,  of  a pattern  that  the  designer  no  doubt 
thought  would  attract  attention,  which  it  has  not  failed  to  do ; 
but  what  impression  it  was  intended  to  convey,  it  is  impossible 
to  say.  At  the  first  glance  the  body  appears  to  have  a form 
something  akin  to  that  of  an  enormous  elongated  egg,  standing 
on  its  smallest  end  surrounded  by  flames ; but  here  we  are  mis- 
taken, for  these  last,  on  a closer  examination,  are  evidently  in- 
tended for  leaves  of  water  plants,  the  most  luxuriant  of  which 
has  been  seized  in  a fit  of  desperation  by  a goose,  (or  swan,  possi- 
bly,) which  seems  in  need  of  some  such  support  to  keep  a firmer 
hold  than  it  could  otherwise  secure  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
egg.  The  neck  of  the  bird,  thus  brought  into  connection  with 
the  plant,  is  made  to  serve  as  a handle,  and  the  wide-spreading 
wings  have  not  been  forgotten,  for  they,  too,  perform  their  part 
— that  of  a spout,  by  means  of  which  the  jug  can  be  emptied  of 
its  contents.  The  whole  thing  is  a monstrosity,  and  vulgar  to  a 
point  beyond  all  hope  of  improvement  on  the  part  of  one  who 
could  find  any  thing  pleasing  in  such  a design.  It  has  not  a re- 
deeming quality  or  a feature  to  recommend  it  to  our  attention. 

And  now,  to  understand  this  more  fully,  let  us  compare  the 
above  with  this  exquisite  ewer,  also  in  Parian,  after  an  antique 
design,  and  probably  one  of  Benvenuto  Cellini’s.  The  body,  it 
will  be  seen,  has  also  the  egg  shape,  yet  how  differently  it  has  been 
treated ; figures  have  been  introduced,  but  only  in  a conventional 
manner,  and  this  has  been  done  with  all  the  playfulness  that  could 
be  imparted  to  them  by  an  ingenious  and  cultivated  mind.  The 
standard,  the  neck  and  the  shoulders,  are  all  treated  in  a charm- 
ing manner,  and  the  work,  in  whatever  situation  it  might  be 
placed,  wrould  command  our  admiration  and  respect.  The  hand 
of  the  artist  is  seen  in  every  line ; we  can  feel  his  touch,  appreci- 
ate his  love  of  the  beautiful,  and  regard  with  unalloyed  pleasure 
the  evidence  of  his  creative  skill.  And  herein  lies  the  difference 
between  these  two  modellers:  the  one  worked  conscientiously 


316 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


and  with  an  earnest  desire  to  give  expression  to  his  love  of  the 
beautiful ; the  other,  guided  by  no  such  principle,  exaggerates 
and  distorts  nature,  and  crudely  models  the  vagaries  of  an  uncul- 
tivated mind,  to  minister  to  a taste  as  perverted  as  his  own. 

Excess  is  always  objectionable,  it  matters  not  in  what  form  it 
comes ; in  all  the  walks  of  life  it  is  the  same,  and  we  loathe  it  as 
much  in  one  thing  as  in  another ; but  those  who  cater  for  us  in 
matters  of  taste  seldom  comprehend  this  simple  truth.  They  im- 
agine that  quantity  will  compensate  for  any  lack  of  quality,  and, 
in  too  many  instances,  that  which  would  appear  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage if  treated  in  a simple  and  unpretending  manner,  has  lav- 
ished upon  it  a profusion  of  unbecoming  and  meaningless  orna- 
ments. Whatever  is  to  have  a conspicuous  place,  whether  on  the 
sideboard  or  the  parlor  table,  is  seized  upon  with  avidity,  and  the 
designer,  instead  of  acting  up  to  the  rule,  that  the  basic  form  or 
structural  peculiarity  of  the  article  under  treatment  should  con- 
trol the  ornaments  with  which  it  is  to  be  associated  in  our  minds, 
evinces  an  unwillingness  to  forego  the  pleasure  of  throwing  its 
finest  points  into  the  shade.  Under  such  circumstances  that 
which  is  severely  plain  would  be  the  most  acceptable,  for  if  it 
excites  no  pleasurable  emotions,  it  at  least  offers  nothing  that  is 
objectionable.  Of  this  excess  in  the  employment  of  ornament  we 
have  given  several  examples ; it  is  exhibited  in  a peculiar  manner 
in  the  console  table,  page  306,  and  the  value  of  ornaments  when 
subordinate  to,  and  growing  out  of,  the  basic  form  of  the  article 
under  treatment,  is  exemplified  in  the  extension  table  that  fol- 
lows it.  And  here  we  have  another  instance  in  the  form  of 
two  pitchers — the  one,  moulded  in  ordinary  terra  cotta,  has  all 
the  extravagant  profusion  sometimes  displayed  in  ivory  carvings  ; 
and  it  is  loaded  down  with  ornaments,  which  are  crowded  to- 
gether to  a degree  that  is  burdensome ; the  other,  in  Parian, 
maintains  a simple  and  unpretending  character,  offering  only  in 
partial  relief  a few  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  calla,  a plant  that 
cannot  exist  without  a constant  supply  of  water,  and  it  therefore 
becomes  not  only  a suitable  ornament  for  an  article  of  this  de- 
scription, but  is  the  more  to  be  valued  as  showing  a degree  of 
thought  and  adaptation  on  the  part  of  the  designer,  not  displayed 


PITCHER  IN  TERRA  COTTA.  PITCHER  IN  PARIAN 


COFFEE  POT  AND  PITCHER  IN  SILVER. 


ORNAMENT. 


317 


in  its  more  showy  companion,  and  this  at  once  entitles  it  to  onr 
respect. 

The  desire  to  obtain  new  forms  is  never  allowed  to  sleep,  and 
it  appears  equally  in  the  wares  of  the  silversmith,  the  models  that 
come  from  the  workers  in  clay,  elaborately  carved  furniture,  and 
designs  for  textiles.  This  is  to  be  deplored,  and  in  a particular 
manner  in  works  wrought  in  the  precious  metals,  which,  from 
their  costliness,  are  likely  to  be  preserved  for  a long  time.  But 
old  shapes,  however  well  proportioned  and  suited  to  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  intended,  cannot  compete  with  those  which 
are  striking  for  their  novelty,  even  when  this  quality  is  obtained 
by  wholly  sacrificing  the  utility  of  the  costly  article. 

The  design  of  the  Coffee  Pot,  in  silver,  here  presented,  is  not 
strikingly  new,  yet  it  commends  itself  to  our  attention,  not  only 
for  the  grace  and  purity  of  its  form,  but  also  for  the  good  taste 
displayed  in  its  ornaments.  It  was  evidently  designed  to  be  use- 
ful as  well  as  elegant.  The  handle  is  graceful,  and  can  be  readily 
grasped ; the  spout,  which  is  not  inelegant  in  form,  is  so  placed 
as  to  harmonize  with  the  general  outline,  and  at  the  same  time 
serve  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed.  But  the  pitcher, 
also  in  silver,  is  of  a different  stamp.  The  standard  is  heavy,  the 
outline  of  the  body  is  forced  into  a variety  of  curves  which  are 
not  pleasing,  the  handle  is  inexpressive,  and  is  therefore  a failure ; 
and  when  used  it  would  have  to  be  almost  inverted  before  the 
contents  could  be  poured  out.  And  here  again  we  see  utility, 
symmetry,  and  elegance  sacrificed  to  the  love  of  novelty  mani- 
fested by  many  persons  of  uneducated  taste. 

Of  incongruities  in  art  we  have  probably  given  examples 
enough,  yet  we  know  of  no  fault  more  conspicuous  in  our  art 
products,  or  one  that  more  surely  accompanies  every  effort  of  the 
designer  who  has  not  thoroughly  mastered  the  subject  to  which 
his  attention  is  turned.  Nor  is  it  surprising  that  such  is  the  case, 
seeing  that  men  whose  names  have  been  handed  down  to  us  as 
models  of  excellence  in  their  several  departments  have  left  to 
posterity,  with  their  finest  productions,  works  rendered  conspicu- 
ous by  the  incongruities  that  disfigure  them — monuments,  liter- 
ally, of  their  folly  and  abuse  of  one  of  God’s  most  precious  gifts. 


318 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Such  was  the  world’s  estimate  of  the  picture  of  King  Charles 
and  his  Queen,  who  were  represented  by  Houthorst  as  Apollo 
and  Diana,  sitting  in  the  clouds,  and  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
under  the  figure  of  Mercury,  introducing  to  them  the  arts  and 
sciences — for  which  absurdity  he  received  three  thousand  florins, 
a service  of  plate  for  twelve,  and  a horse.  And  with  this  may  be 
classed  Philip  Duval’s  picture  of  the  Duchess  of  Richmond  as 
Venus  receiving  arms  from  Vulcan,  with  head-dress  and  bracelets 
of  the  style  then  in  vogue  at  Versailles!  Hondius,  too,  was  car- 
ried away  by  the  grand  style,  and  commenced  painting  by  select- 
ing for  his  subject  the  u Burning  of  Troy.”  It  proved  a misera- 
ble failure,  of  course,  and  it  was  only  after  he  had  exhibited  a 
picture  of  the  u dog  market  ” that  he  met  with  success.  Carlo 
Marratti  painted  the  Earl  of  Sunderland  in  a loose  drapery, 
whole  length,  like  an  apostle.  Abraham  has  been  represented  in 
the  act  of  sacrificing  Isaac  by  blowing  out  his  brains  with  a blun- 
derbuss. In  a picture  of  the  separation  between  the  patriarch 
and  Lot,  the  latter  is  pointing  to  the  cities  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jordan,  which  are  represented  by  buildings  with  domes.  Tinto- 
ret  armed  the  Israelites  with  fusils ; David  has  left  to  us  a picture 
of  the  naked  Romans  and  Sabins  going  into  action  with  helmets 
on  their  heads,  and  spears  and  shields  in  their  hands ; and  the 
Benedictine  monks  were  introduced  into  the  “ Marriage  of  Ca- 
na,” by  Veronese. 

But  we  have  only  referred  to  these  incongruities  in  paintings 
of  artists  whose  names  are  well  known,  to  show  how  easily  men 
of  refined  feelings  have  been  led  astray ; and  if,  with  all  their 
high  appreciation  of  their  art,  they  did  not  see  and  feel  that  they 
had  stepped  beyond  the  bounds  of  propriety,  it  is  hardly  to  be 
expected  that  less  cultivated  minds  would  be  free  from  like  im- 
perfections. Nor  do  we  look  for  it,  but  rather  do  we  seek  to 
show  in  a humble  way,  how  careful  all  who  minister  to  our  com- 
fort and  taste  should  be  to  give  us  only  such  works  as  will  have 
a beneficial  influence.  Were  this  so,  all  would  in  time  have  a 
higher  appreciation  of  that  which  is  genuine  ; but  so  long  as  this 
feeling  is  wanting,  we  must  look  for  startling  effects,  and  the  dis- 
tortion of  every  natural  object  that  the  designer  can  convert  to 


. 


ROSEWOOD  TABLE, 


ORNAMENT. 


319 


his  own  use.  It  was  this  that  led  a designer  to  exhibit  at  our 
Crystal  Palace  a clock  in  the  form  of  a rose,  over  which  a green 
beetle  crawled,  to  mark  the  hours  on  the  outer  petals.  And  the 
same  feeling  animated  the  engraver  who,  carried  away  with  a 
love  of  Nuremberg  iron  work,  placed  scroll  hinges  on  the  imagi- 
nary gates  of  Paradise,  We  daily  see  heavy  weights  supported, 
on  the  frail  and  delicate  stems  of  the  fuchsia  and  lily ; jets  of  gas 
burst  forth  from  the  delicate  flowers  of  the  convolvulus,  pottery 
ware  is  made  to  imitate  metal,  and  metal  is  painted,  to  resemble 
stone.  Lace  veils  are  wrought  with  views  of  the  Crystal  Palace, 
and  in  pastry  we  are  supplied  with  naval  engagements.*  Orna- 
ments are  introduced  wherever  there  is  an  opening,  without  re- 
gard to  their  real  end,  and  thus  it  is  we  often  see  them  in  a posi- 
tion quite  at  variance  with  our  ideas  of  propriety  and  good  taste. 
Here  is  an  example,  and  one  more  to  the  purpose,  we  hope  and 
believe,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find.  It  is  a centre-table,  of  rose- 
wood, with  a marble  top,  octagon  in  shape,  and  the  carving  is 
bold  enough  to  suit  the  most  enthusiastic  admirer  of  high  relief. 
But  here  are  caryatides  wdth  their  heads  rising  above  that  which 
they  support,  and  between  these  are  caryatides  actually  supported 
by  that  which  they  should  support ; while  the  form  of  the  legs  is 
such  that  the  whole  weight  must  be  sustained  by  the  mere  lateral 
adhesion  of  the  fibre  at  their  smallest  diameter.  Whatever  has 
nothing  to  do  is  a positive  incumbrance,  and  following  out  this 
rule,  the  greater  part  of  the  ornaments  here  introduced  only  add 
to  the  defects  of  a design  that  has  nothing  of  elegance,  strength, 
or  utility  to  recommend  it  to  our  attention.  Had  it  any  of  these 
qualities  it  would  not  require  such  an  oppressive  weight  of  mean- 
ingless scrolls  and  figures  to  secure  a favorable  notice  ; and  any 
resort  to  this  method  of  hiding  defects  is  as  unbecoming  as  it 
would  be  for  a lady  to  wear  a brooch  that  fastened  no  portion  of 
her  dress,  or  a chain  of  gold  without  a watch  or  some  other  arti- 
cle of  value  attached  to  it. 

* It  was  said  in  1814  that  the  pastry  cooks  who  furnished  Guerriers,  Consti- 
tutions, and  Javas  for  public  dinners,  realized  more  profit  from  their  work  of 
taste  than  either  the  painters  and  engravers  who  executed  the  same  subjects  on 
canvas  or  copper. 


320 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Every  thing  that  is  strained,  forced,  or  unnatural,  is  repulsive. 
An  excess  of  color,  an  elaboration  of  carved  ornaments,  or  extrav- 
agance of  any  kind  in  matters  of  taste,  should  meet  a well-merited 
censure.  This  is  the  pnly  way  to  correct  an  evil,  which,  if  per- 
mitted to  go  unchecked,  will  lead  to  the  debasement  of  art.  It 
does  not  require  long  study  or  close  application  to  see  the  more 
prominent  faults  in  our  present  style  of  decoration.  A mere 
glance  will  show  that  these  little  figures,  called  “ The  Vintage,” 
although  represented  as  walking,  could  not  move  a step  with  the 
tub  of  grape  juice,  as  they  now  hold  it.  The  whole  thing  is 
false,  and  therefore  unpardonable ; and  knowing  this,  it  becomes 
the  lovers  of  art  to  see  that  every  work  of  like  pretensions, 
whether  it  be  rough  in  form  or  elegantly  wrought,  in  nowise  vio- 
lates the  well-known  laws  of  nature. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


ORNAMENT. 


'ASTE — which  has  been  described  as  the  finest  ornament  and 


purest  luxury  of  a land — is  a thing  of  culture,  and  to  its  full 
enjoyment  we  may  not  hope  to  attain  till  the  eye  has  been  trained 
as  well  as  the  mind. 

A hundred  years  ago  the  opinion  was  expressed  in  England, 
that  the  arts  could  only  reach  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  in 
despotic  countries ; and,  whatever  might  have  been  the  cause,  it 
was  proclaimed,  that  whereas  in  Rome  the  arts  advanced  as  lib- 
erty declined,  in  Great  Britain,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the 
principles  of  liberty  predominate,  the  arts  have  ever  been  at  a 
low  ebb — a course  of  reasoning  somewhat  on  a par  with  that  of 
the  French  savans,  who  could  only  account  for  the  great  number 
of  eminent  lawyers  at  Paris  and  Toulouse,  by  attributing  it  to 
some  peculiarity  of  the  climate ; until  some  one,  pointing  to  the 
Universities  in  those  places,  asked  if  it  could  be  that  they  exerted 
a beneficial  influence  over  society.*  And  so  we  might  turn  to 
the  history  of  Rome  and  find  that  the  sjwead  of  the  arts  was  di- 
rectly traceable  to  the  schools  established  by  the  several  masters, 
and  the  interest  manifested  for  the  public  good  by  private  indi- 
viduals. 

The  very  opposite  of  this  prevailed  in  England  at  the  time  to 
which  attention  has  been  called ; for  the  Monthly  Review  of  1756 
remarked  on  the  extraordinary  fact,  that  in  a country  in  which 


* D’Israeli  relates  this  anecdote. 


14* 


322 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


so  many  natural  advantages  depended  on  the  flourishing  state  of 
its  manufactures,  the  study,  the  peculiar  object  of  which  is  ele- 
gance of  form,  should  have  been  so  little  encouraged  by  minis- 
ters, men  of  fortune,  and  merchants. 

So  long  ago  as  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  a school  was  established 
in  England,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Crown,  for  art  culture ; 
though,  unhappily,  it  met  with  no  success.  There  was  no  lack 
of  interest  in  the  subject  on  the  part  of  the  King,  for  the  first 
display  of  real  taste  in  England  was  during  his  reign,  and  with 
the  royal  family  the  arts  were  in  a measure  banished  from  the 
country.  He  sent  to  Italy  for  Yandyck  and  Albano,  but  Inigo’ 
Jones  was  at  hand  to  encourage  his  taste  for  architecture;  and 
at  the  suggestion  of  Rubens  he  purchased  the  cartoons  of  Ra- 
phael, which  had  remained  unused  in  Flanders,  from  the  time 
they  were  sent  there  by  Leo  X.  to  be  copied  in  tapestry,  the 
money  for  this  work  having  never  been  paid. 

Gerbier,  of  Antwerp,  subsequently  endeavored  to  found  a 
similar  school  in  London ; but,  instead  of  resulting  in  good,  his 
absurdities  brought  it  into  contempt.  Queen  Anne  showed  that 
she  was  not  unmindful  of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a 
correct  taste,  and,  to  set  an  example,  studied  drawing  under 
Gibson,  the  dwarf,  who  also  instructed  her  sister,  the  Princess  of 
Orange.  And  Mary  de  Medici  likewise  designed  well,  and  sub- 
mitted her  drawing  to  Rubens,  for  correction.  Modelling  in  the 
academy,  wrote  Barry  in  one  of  his  letters  to  Burke,  is  not  likely 
to  mislead  one,  and  must  be  useful  to  men  of  real  genius.  Lord 
Arundel,  says  Evelyn,  thought  that  one  who  could  not  design  a 
little  would  not  make  an  honest  man.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  all 
his  life  long,  felt  his  deficiencies  in  drawing,  and  bitterly  regretted 
not  having  had  the  advantages  derived  from  a proper  course  of 
training;  and  of  West  it  is  related,  that  whilst  residing  for  a 
limited  time  with  one  of  his  father’s  friends,  he  derived  great  ad- 
vantage from  the  conversation  of  the  governess  of  the  house,  a 
young  English  lady  well  acquainted  with  art  and  the  Latin  and 
Greek  poets,  who  loved  to  point  out  to  the  young  artist  the  most 
picturesque  passages.* 


Dunlap. 


ORNAMENT. 


323 


But  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  enumerate  even  the  names  of 
the  many  who  have  aided  the  spread  of  a love  of  art ; nothing  of 
the  kind  is  required  of  us,  for  all  admit  its  refining  influence,  and 
therefore  our  first  endeavor  should  he  to  encourage  its  growth 
by  drawing  attention  to  the  finest  examples  of  creative  skill.  In 
art,  as  in  every  thing  else,  just  as  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  in- 
clines, and  the  student  who  early  devotes  himself  to  a study  of 
Morland’s  pigs,  will  not  be  likely  to  enjoy  and  appreciate  to  the 
full  Raphael’s  transcendent  productions.  The  tub-maker  who 
would  be  satisfied  with  a damaged  picture,  providing  he  could 
give  it  a market  value  by  attaching  to  it  Constable’s  name, 
could  never  comprehend  art’s  true  mission ; as  did  a poor  curate 
in  one  of  the  mud  villages  on  the  coast  of  England,  on  the  walls 
of  whose  dark,  low,  underground  parlor,  there  was  discovered, 
by  one  who  had  occasion  to  visit  him,  a print  of  Stothard’s  Can- 
terbury Pilgrims,  which  the  poor  man  little  less  than  worshipped. 

A cultivated  mind  is  certainly  the  one  best  fitted  to  enjoy  the 
beauties  of  nature,  and  the  importance  of  that  culture,  as  consid- 
ered in  our  day,  is  practically  answered  in  the  number  and  effi- 
ciency of  our  public  schools.  But  public  schools,  while  they  an- 
swer one  great  end,  do  not  go  far  enough ; for,  as  it  has  already 
been  remarked,  the  eye  must  be  cultivated  as  well  as  the  mind. 
Copley  says,  “ there  is  a luxury  in  seeing  as  well  as  in  eating  and 
drinking ; the  more  we  indulge  the  less  we  are  to  be  restrained ; 
and,”  he  adds,  “ indulgence  in  art  I think  innocent  and  laudable.” 
And  Galen  held  that  the  whole  head  was  made  for  the  eyes 
alone. 

In  the  way  of  education,  we  tax  all  our  resources  to  have  that 
which  is  best  and  most  likely  to  result  advantageously.  W e have 
schools  of  every  grade,  from  the  primary  to  the  university.  Skil- 
ful teachers  are  daily  employed  to  fill  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
with  the  beauties  of  history,  the  profound  mysteries  of  the  more 
abstruse  sciences,  and  in  the  charms  of  poetry  in  our  own  lan- 
guage, and  that  of  other  lands.  The  rich  and  the  poor,  the  bright 
and  the  dull,  the  native  and  the  alien,  are  alike  urged  to  come  to 
the  storehouse  and  partake  of  the  treasures — the  wealth  of  learn- 
ing which  is  freely  distributed  to  all  who  hunger  and  thirst  after 


324 


AKT-MA2TCJFACTUKES. 


knowledge.  Yet  one  thing  is  lacking.  The  boy  may  recite  whole 
pages  of  Yirgil ; can  he  tell  in  what  the  plough  of  to-day  differs 
from  that  in  the  Georgies  ? Has  he  been  taught  the  importance 
of  practical  observations,  and  can  he  at  the  word  express  himself 
equally  well  with  the  pencil  and  the  pen  ? If  not,  then  he  has 
yet  to  learn  in  his  intercourse  with  the  world  that  which  he 
should  have  acquired  with  his  letters ; but,  whatever  proficiency 
he  may  then  make,  in  after  life  he  will  never  so  fully  master  the 
rules  of  proportion,  and  the  harmony  of  color,  or  learn  how  to 
discriminate  when  called  upon  for  an  opinion  in  matters  of  taste. 
Here,  then,  we  see  that  much  has  yet  to  be  done  to  perfect  our 
system  of  education,  the  current  of  wThich  has  been  confined  al- 
most exclusively  to  one  channel.  But  to  this  subject  we  shall 
turn  again.  Children  of  natural  abilities,  we  know,  are  easily 
trained,  and  in  nothing  quicker  than  a love  of  the  beautiful. 
They  are  early  attracted  by  color,  which,  in  all  probability,  is  the 
first  thing  that  commands  their  attention  without  a thought ; for 
a knowledge  of  form  requires  study,  and  in  the  contrast  of  form 
we  find  the  superior  excellence  of  the  finest  specimens  of  orna- 
mental art.*  This  is  variety  for  the  sake  of  beauty  ; but  variety 
for  the  sake  of  variety,  so  conspicuous  in  many  of  our  art-products, 
destroys  a rule  of  order  and  is  subservient  to  a taste  that  delights 
in  startling  effects. 

The  wares  of  the  Hindoo  are  gorgeous  combinations  of  the 
most  exquisite  forms  and  colors ; but  they  never  offend  good 
taste.  His  designs  have  not  the  diversified  character  of  a higher 
culture,  but  they  are  eminently  adapted  to  the  fabrics  of  bis  loom, 
which,  when  first  brought  to  Rome,  sold  for  a hundred  times 
their  original  cost.  The  Chinese,  with  greater  resources,  is  far 
his  inferior,  and  when  he  attempts  the  beautiful  he  displays  his 
skill  in  carving  ivory  balls,  and  other  childish  curiosities.  He  can 
build  a gigantic  wall,  as  a means  of  protection  against  the  Yo- 
mades,  and  construct  a canal  that  exhibits  sound  practical  skill ; 
but  in  all  matters  of  taste  he  is  very  deficient,  and  his  tent-shaped 
house  is  not  one  whit  in  advance  of  the  days  of  Confucius.  The 
Turk’s  love  of  the  beautiful  marks  every  thing  that  comes  from 

* Dugald  Stuart. 


ORNAMENT. 


325 


Ms  hand.  The  style  of  ornamenting  peculiar  to  the  Arab  (which 
has  always  been  valued  for  its  elegance  and  richness)  was  im- 
ported into  Europe  through  Venice,  and  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  employed  to  the  almost  exclusion  of  other  forms.  In 
the  works  of  the  German  goldsmiths  and  French  binders  of  that 
period  it  is  very  conspicuous.  The  Peruvians  naturally  united 
the  useful  with  the  beautiful.  Their  forms  were  all  borrowed 
from  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  a peculiar  custom 
— that  of  never  allowing  articles  of  clay  to  come  to  the  table 
twice — gave  rise  to  large  manufactories  of  pottery,  in  which  a 
certain  degree  of  elegance  was  attained.  The  Aztecs  gave  a fan- 
tastic form  to  their  ornamental  art,  which,  like  that  of  ancient 
Egypt,  was  governed  by  certain  laws  of  their  religion.  The  like- 
nesses of  their  kings  were  preserved  in  sculpture,  and  the  world 
has  yet  to  decipher  the  rude,  but  picturesque  monuments,  which 
still  keep  watch  over  the  site  of  their  former  greatness.  Neither 
the  Peruvians  nor  Aztecs  knew  the  use  of  iron,  and  with  tools 
greatly  inferior  to  our  own,  they  carved  their  figures  in  basalt 
and  granite.  They  also  worked  in  gold  and  silver,  and  the  speci- 
mens still  preserved  show  how  well  they  understood  the  art. 

But  of  modern  nations,  France  has  taken  the  lead  in  all  that 
relates  to  ornamental  art.  The  elegant  and  the  useful  have  there 
been  combined  to  a degree  that  has  not  been  attained  by  any 
other  nation.  All  her  goods  bear  the  unmistakable  stamp  of 
culture,  and  the  superior  finish  and  style  peculiar  to  them  have 
nearly  driven  competitors  out  of  markets  where  the  beautiful  is 
at  all  appreciated — forcing  producers  into  the  conviction  that 
there  is  an  end  to  be  attained  besides  that  of  utility,  and  that  if 
they  would  compete,  they,  too,  must  encourage  ornamental  art, 
and  raise  up  their  own  designers. 

England,  no  laggard  when  her  interest  is  concerned,  was 
made  to  feel  her  inferiority  in  this  respect  when  her  wares  were 
placed  beside  those  of  her  rival  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
1851.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  that  country 
was  paying  annually  to  France  and  other  nations  a sum  nearly 
equivalent  to  £200,000  for  engraving  alone.  Boydell,  through 
his  own  exertions,  and  a judicious  encouragement  of  this  branch 


326 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


of  art  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign,  completely  turned  the  tables, 
and  a greater  sum  was  annually  paid  into  England  for  like  works. 
But  the  advantage  thus  gained  in  one  particular  was  lost  through 
an  indifference  to  the  importance  of  sustaining  other  departments. 
Articles  of  utility  still  continued  to  he  manufactured  there  of  the 
best  materials,  hut  with  slight  reference  to  the  beautiful  in  form, 
and  prior  to  1815  there  was  no  collection  at  all  available  to  which 
those  engaged  in  trades  requiring  a knowledge  of  ornamental  art 
could  refer,  whilst  France,  ever  looking  to  the  interest  of  her  ar- 
tisans, had  long  had  her  national  collection,  and  for  centuries  no 
pains  have  there  been  spared  to  develop  the  national  taste.  Of  a 
love  of  art  there  never  has  been  a lack  in  England  since  its  re- 
vival, and  West,  who  had  ample  opportunities  of  judging,  says  : 
“ I know  of  no  people,  since  the  Greeks,  so  likely  to  attain  to  ex- 
cellence in  the  arts  as  the  people  of  England,  if  the  same  spirit 
and  love  for  them  were  diffused  and  cherished  among  them,  as  it 
was  among  the  subjects  of  Grecian  States.”  Art  in  England,  in 
West’s  day,  and  nearly  up  to  the  present  time,  was  completely 
isolated.  It  was  considered  a subject  of  study  for  the  few,  and 
not  a source  of  gratification  and  improvement  for  the  many ; 
whereas  in  Greece  every  thing  was  intimately  associated  with  the 
arts.  They  were  discussed  at  all  times  in  public,  and  the  men 
who  had  done  most  to  elevate  them  were  in  turn  elevated  in  the 
estimation  of  the  people,  who,  we  find,  in  all  things  associated  the 
arts  with  their  pursuits  and  recreations. 

It  is  not  long  since  the  time  when  the  wares  of  Birmingham 
and  Staflordshire  were  moulded  altogether  after  stereotyped 
forms,  and  in  England  there  was  not  even  an  ambitious  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  manufacturers  to  repeat  in  clay  the  beautiful  forms 
that  Flaxman  modelled  for  Wedgwood,  or  in  metals  and  textiles 
the  exquisite  designs  that  might  easily  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  East ; but  gaudiness  of  effect,  and  goods  cheaper  than  could 
be  produced  elsewhere,  seemed  to  be  the  guiding  principle  of 
manufacturers  who  had  millions  at  their  command  and  tens  of 
thousands  in  their  employ.  If  they  borrowed  at  all,  it  was  only 
a blind  imitation.  Thus,  at  one  time  every  article  of  furniture 
was  after  the  Chinese,  that  being  the  style  in  vogue.  Subse- 


ORN  AMENT. 


327 


quently  the  Gothic  claimed  a like  share  of  attention,  and  more 
recently  the  Greek  and  Roman  forms  alone  could  please  a change- 
able taste  or  satisfy  a demand  for  novelty.  In  each  of  these  or- 
ders there  is  something  of  real  worth,  but  instead  of  taking  them 
in  turn,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  it  would  have  been  more  in 
keeping  with  good  taste  to  have  ascertained  the  exact  adaptation 
of  each,  choosing  only  such  as  happily  blended  an  expression  of 
beauty  with  fitness  or  utility. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  influence  of  the  ‘great  exposi- 
tion on  the  English  mind,  and  we  must  again  refer  to  it.  One  of 
the  objections  to  that  exposition  was  the  certainty  that  the  coun- 
try would  be  deluged  with  foreign  articles  and  new  tastes  creat- 
ed, which  could  not  be  catered  for  at  home.  And  after  it  was 
opened  to  the  public,  the  press  declared  that  a sense  of  mortifica- 
tion in  matters  of  art  appeared  to  have  seized  upon  the  minds  of 
all  who  took  an  interest  in  the  subject.  To  the  manufacturers  it 
was  self-evident,  that  while  they  lacked  not  machinery  or  indus- 
try to  carry  forward  any  great  work,  there  was  a lack  of  inventive 
genius  in  the  land  to  give  their  products  an  attractive  form. 
They  knew  there  was  a growing  tendency  to  an  increased  refine- 
ment, and  that  the  demand  for  ornamental  art  (almost  unknown 
when  they  first  supplied  the  market  with  goods)  had  become 
pressing ; and  they  were  also  aware  that  France,  ever  alive  to 
her  best  interests,  for  the  last  quarter  of  a century  had  annually 
employed  the  most  cultivated  designers  to  lecture  alternately  at 
Paris  and  Lyons  on  the  subject  of  decorative  arts.  But  these 
things  had  not  aroused  them  to  greater  activity.  They  were 
confident  that  the  quality  of  their  goods  was  unsurpassed ; that 
the  machinery  with  which  they  wrought  such  excellent  fabrics 
was  perfect  of  its  kind  ; and  looking  upon  beauty  of  form  as  little 
better  than  a trick  to  set  off  an  inferior  article,  they  rigidly  set 
their  backs  against  all  innovations  of  the  kind.  And  it  was  only 
when  all  eyes  turned  from  that  which  was  valued  for  its  utility  to 
that  which  combined  the  same  quality  with  beauty  of  expression, 
that  they  took  the  alarm,  and  then  no  efforts  were  spared  to  re- 
gain lost  ground. 

One  of  the  first  results  was  an  increased  activity  on  the  part 


328 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


of  the  Board  of  Trade.  The  government  advanced  liberal  sums 
to  encourage  investigation,  and  those  who  were  most  likely  to 
know  the  extent  of  an  evil  so  apparent,  and  the  best  means  of 
preventing  a recurrence  of  the  like  humiliation,  were  called  to 
the  stand.  One  declared  that  the  goods  yearly  imported  from 
France  could  be  manufactured  at  home,  were  the  designs  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  English  workmen ; at  the  same  time  he  ex- 
pressed the  conviction  that  the  French  article  would  not  sell  with- 
out regard  to  its  particular  merit.  Another  house  thus  gave  its 
testimony : “ I have  been  acquainted  with  the  manufactures  of 
this  country  for  more  than  twenty  years.  I have  generally  found 
that  we  have  been  much  superior  to  foreign  countries  in  the  gen- 
eral manufacture,  but  greatly  inferior  in  the  art  of  design.  The 
great  mass  of  the  people  in  this  country,  not  merely  the  lower  and 
middle  classes,  have  not  their  tastes  cultivated  in  proportion  to 
their  education.”  A third,  on  being  asked  to  what  cause  he  at- 
tributed the  superiority  of  the  manufacture  of  gloves  in  France, 
gave  the  significant  reply,  “ To  the  knowledge  the  workman  has 
of  the  shape  of  the  hand.”  And  in  a speech  in  Manchester,  Mr. 
Cobden  said : “ Take  the  French  as  calico  printers — we  derive 
all  that  we  know  of  calico  printing  from  them ; we  have  scarcely 
a color  that  is  not  of  French  invention  ; scarcely  any  combination 
to  produce  a new  effect  but  we  have  borrowed  from  the  French. 
We  do  not  know  what  we  shall  have  to  print,  or  what  the  ladies 
will  wear,  till  we  find  out  what  the  French  are  preparing  for  the 
next  spring.” 

Then  came  the  conviction  that  the  deficiency  could  not  be 
remedied  by  pointing  out  the  evil,  and  that  what  had  been  left 
undone  must  now  be  undertaken  by  those  who  were  impressed 
with  its  importance.  It  was  not  too  late  to  adopt  some  general 
principle,  by  which  expression  could  be  given  to  the  several  parts 
of  their  products ; or,  employ  a language  that  would  address  it- 
self as  well  to  the  imagination  as  to  the  eye ; and  from  that  date 
it  became  the  one  great  object  to  improve  the  form  of  every  arti- 
cle of  utility. 

The  first  step  was  to  establish  schools  of  design,  in  the  me- 
tropolis and  manufacturing  districts.  These  sprang  up  through- 


ORNAMENT. 


329 


out  England,  in  Scotland,  and  even  in  Ireland.  Teachers  were 
employed,  and  the  old  and  the  young  were  alike  induced  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  them  of  improving 
their  tastes.  To  the  young,  especially,  this  was  an  exceedingly 
fortunate  circumstance ; and  even  those  advanced  in  life  found 
the  schools  attractive. 

But  how  were  they  to  derive  the  greatest  amount  of  good 
from  the  liberality  of  the  enlightened  and  cultivated  ? V ertue 
relates  a tradition  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  that  he  went  once  a 
year  to  survey  the  roof  of  the  Chapel  of  King’s  College,  and  said 
that  if  a man  would  show  him  where  to  place  the  first  stone,  he 
would  engage  to  build  such  another.  The  manufacturers  of  the 
nineteenth  century  were  equally  at  a loss  where  to  begin.  They 
had  learned  to  their  cost  that  nothing  is  beautiful  that  is  not 
true,  and  that  truth  can  only  be  attained  by  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  laws  of  nature  and  the  properties  of  bodies.  Here 
a wide  field  was  open  for  investigation,  and  the  words  of  West — 
“ schools  of  art  are  designed  to  give  taste  to  every  species  of 
manufactures,  to  polish  rudeness  into  elegance  and  soften  mas- 
siveness into  grace” — assumed  an  imjmrtance  never  before  ac- 
corded to  them.  A new  value  was  imparted  to  the  flowers  of 
the  field  and  the  minerals  of  the  earth.  Kature’s  manner  of 
working  was  contrasted  with  that  of  her  children,  and  the  result 
was  just  as  humiliating  to  the  inquirer  as  it  was  a century  before 
to  Hogarth,  whose  beautiful  expression  of  our  present  ideas  of 
ornamental  art  has  experienced  the  same  neglect  that  the  artist 
met  with  in  his  own  day.* 

During  the  past  five  years  Schools  of  Design  in  England  have 

* In  describing  a clock  made  by  order  of  government,  for  keeping  correct 
time  at  sea,  which  had  not  the  beauty  of  form  that  would  have  harmonized  with 
its  mechanism,  Hogarth  thus  gives  utterance  to  his  feelings  : “ Had  a machine 
for  this  purpose  been  nature’s  work,  the  whole  and  every  individual  part  might 
have  had  exquisite  beauty  of  form,  without  danger  of  destroying  the  nicety  of 
its  motion,  even  as  if  ornament  had  been  the  sole  aim ; its  movements,  too, 
might  have  been  graceful,  without  one  superfluous  tittle  being  added  for  either 
of  those  lively  purposes.  Now  this  is  that  curious  difference  between  the  fitness 
of  nature’s  machines,  and  those  made  by  mortal  hands.” 


330 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


grown  into  importance,  in  spite  of  all  the  obstacles,  in  the  way  of 
prejudice,  want  of  experienced  teachers,  and  the  depressive  gloom 
at  one  time  cast  over  the  country  by  an  unpopular  and  expensive 
war ; and  in  the  larger  towns  every  facility  is  offered  those  who 
are  disposed  to  improve  them.  Younger  students  go  through  a 
prescribed  course,  beginning  with  linear,  geometry,  and  mechan- 
ical drawing,  and  ending  with  drawing  the  human  figure  from 
the  life.  And  those  who  are  actually  employed  in  the  production 
of  goods  for  the  market,  are  encouraged  to  study,  as  far  as  in 
them  lies,  the  principles  on  which  the  designs  before  them  are 
based.  Time  alone  can  complete  the  work.  The  present  gener- 
ation of  artisans  must  pass  away,  and  the  youths  now  under  tui- 
tion take  their  places,  before  the  country  can  hope  to  reap  the 
whole  advantage  to  be  derived  from  a scientific  course  of  instruc- 
tion. The  English,  however,  are  not  impatient,  and  they  can 
afford  to  wait  till  the  seeds  planted  with  so  much  care  have  ma- 
tured their  fruit. 

But  deeply  as  we  are  interested  in  the  progress  of  the  art 
manufactures  of  England,  we  are  in  duty  bound  to  give  more 
attention  to  our  own  lack  of  artistic  skill.  If  England  is  far  be- 
hind France  in  design,  we  are  equally  far  behind  England,  and  it 
might  almost  be  said  that  we  are  wholly  deficient  in  creative  art, 
with  the  exception  of  such  as  finds  expression  in  works  valued 
exclusively  for  their  utility. 

Let  us  first  see  what  is  thought  of  our  artistic  skill  by  others, 
and  then,  by  looking  into  the  subject,  we  may  judge  whether  it 
is  as  it  appears  at  the  first  sight. 

The  London  Art  Journal  holds  to  the  maxim  that  a man  does 
not  like  to  be  told  of  his  deficiencies,  and  yet  it  speaks  of  us  in 
this  unqualified  manner : “ The  Anglo-American  seems  the  only 
nation  in  whom  a love  of  ornament  is  not  inherent.  The  Yankee 
whittles  a stick,  but  his  cuttings  never  take  a decorative  form ; 
his  activity  vents  itself  in  destroying,  not  in  ornamenting ; he  is 
a utilitarian,  not  a decorator ; he  can  invent  an  elegant  sewing 
machine,  but  not  a Jacquard  loom ; an  electric  telegraph,  but  not 
an  embroidering  machine  ” — a picture  certainly  not  very  flatter- 
ing, but  one  that  we  do  not  feel  wholly  at  liberty  to  reject. 


OENAMENT. 


331 


Blackwood  said  of  the  Paris  Exposition,  “ The  Americans  are 
as  poor  and  practical  as  at  our  own  exhibition.  Colt’s  revolvers, 
now  as  then,  are  the  chief  centre  of  interest ; and,  to  economize 
the  labor  of  the  assistant  exhibitor,  specimens  of  these  deadly 
tools  are  hung  in  chains,  like  cups  by  a public  well,  to  be  snapped 
and  clicked  by  every  comer  who  wishes  to  try  them,  until,  at 
last,  they  are  rendered  totally  useless.” 

Madame  de  Merlin,  in  her  notes  on  America,  is  so  extravagant 
as  to  say  that  all  that  is  beautiful  is  here  forbidden ; and  she  inti- 
mates that  our  minds  are  absorbed  by  the  movements  of  a high- 
pressure  steam  engine,  and  our  hearts  are  changed  into  bank- 
notes ; while  another  ascribes  the  neglect  of  the  arts  in  America, 
to  an  ardor  for  speculation  and  the  all-absorbing  pursuit  of  dol- 
lars, sacrificing  to  the  positive  and  materially  useful,  those  pur- 
suits and  refinements  which  are  the  grace  and  embellishment  of 
human  existence. 

Our  European  caterers  seem  perfectly  aware  that  as  a people 
we  cannot  discriminate  in  the  nicer  shades  of  ornamental  art. 
This  is  one  reason  why  so  few  of  their  finer  products  were  sent  to 
the  New  York  Crystal  Palace;  and  when  surprise  was  expressed 
at  the  inferiority  of  some  of  the  wares  exhibited  in  Paris  by 
Wedgwood,  it  was  declared  that  the  greater  part  were  designed 
for  exportation,  to  suit  the  u fancies  ” of  foreign  markets.  The 
United  States  import  the  wares  of  this  well-known  house  ; the 
articles  referred  to  were  in  part  evidently  intended  for  our  use, 
and  no  doubt  the  manufacturer  finds  it  a very  convenient  thing 
to  ship  off  the  work  of  indifferent  hands — -just  as  we  exchange 
our  showy  calicoes  for  gold  dust  and  ivory  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

Now,  why  is  this  ? We  are  not  deficient  in  the  powers  of  ob- 
servation, though  we  may  never  have  applied  them  to  this  end. 
As  a class,  our  workmen  are  greatly  superior  to  those  of  Europe. 
They  have  advantages  of  education  unknown  in  any  other  coun- 
try, and  by  all  odds,  they  are  the  most  intelligent  mechanics  in 
the  world.  And  to  this  class,  more  than  to  any  other,  we  look 
for  the  preservation  of  the  Union.  They  are  its  bulwark  and  its 
strength,  and  if  they  are  but  indifferent  designers,  it  is  because 
this  faculty  has  not  been  called  into  play.  Here  it  is  an  honor, 


332 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


not  a loss  of  position,  for  a man  to  work  daily  at  some  useful  call- 
ing ; and  the  highest  inducements  are  held  out  to  him  to  make 
himself  a useful,  industrious,  and  valued  member  of  society. 
Why  may  he  not  take  up  ornamental  art,  and  furnish  us  with  the 
designs  we  need  ? The  field  is  a wide  one,  and  the  reward  is 
sure.  In  nearly  every  case  the  arts  have  been  traced  to  an  hum- 
ble origin.  The  germ  in  the  youthful  Giotto  was  discovered  in 
the  forms  he  had  sketched,  on  a flat  stone,  of  the  sheep  he  was 
tending.  From  the  works  of  the  fifteenth  century,  in  niello,  we 
trace  the  rise  of  line  engraving.  The  lines  then  produced  with 
lampblack  and  oil,  resembled  rude  pen-and-ink  drawings;  the 
same  lines  to-day,  drawn  by  more  skilful  hands,  are  the  perfection 
of  the  art. 

The  Hindoo,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  used  a block  to 
stamp  his  tissues  before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  and  the  cara- 
vans of  the  Edomites  bore  the  precious  web  across  the  desert  of 
Persia,  and  laid  it  at  the  feet  of  Babylonian  kings.  Ages  after 
Rome  and  Greece  had  tumbled  into  dust,  a printer  of  Mentz 
carved  a font  of  movable  types  from  the  same  block,  smeared 
them  with  ink,  and  at  small  cost,  gave  to  the  world  the  first  print- 
ed copy  of  the  Bible — a step  that  at  once  raised  man  from  igno- 
rance to  knowledge,  from  weakness  to  strength.  And  still  later, 
at  a time  bordering  almost  on  our  own  day,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
traced  upon  the  same  block  the  forms  that  nature  taught  him 
were  her  choicest  works,  carved  them  with  a skill  that  Angelo 
might  have  envied,  and  opened  a way  to  the  highest  development 
of  the  graver’s  art. 

The  famed  purple  of  Tyre  is  traced  to  the  Tyrian  Hercules, 
the  mouth  of  whose  dog  was  found  stained  with  the  color,  after 
crushing  one  of  the  many  shell-fish  found  upon  the  coast.  A 
search  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  imperial  treasure  found  in  the 
purpura,  a spiral  shell-fish  thrown  up  from  the  depths  of  the  sea. 
Twice  in  the  liquid  thus  collected  he  dipped  the  finest  wool  of 
Syria,  and  wove  a robe  that  none  but  kings  might  wear.  The 
Chaldean  and  Persian  kings  were  clothed  in  purple,  and  in  purple 
Pharaoh  robed  Joseph.  The  mourning  Trojans  prepared  for  the 
remains  of  Hector  a purple  pall,  and  of  purjde  were  the  sails  of 


ORNAMENT. 


333 


Cleopatra’s  barge.  Dives  lived  in  purple,  and  in  purple  the 
mocking  Jews  clothed  our  Saviour. 

With  the  fall  of  Tyre  the  art  of  extracting  the  dye  was  lost, 
and  the  natural  dyes  of  India  and  the  cochineal  of  the  Hew  World 
had  to  supply  the  demand  for  the  royal  color.  And  when  the 
few  remaining  fragments  of  Tyrian  dye  were  nearly  lost  through 
the  lapse  of  time,  the  art  had  not  been  re-discovered.  But  a poor 
Irishwoman,  in  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  it  was  ascertained,  sup- 
ported herself  by  marking  linen  with  a crimson  liquid,  extracted 
from  shell-fish  found  upon  the  coast.  This  led  to  an  investiga- 
tion, and  the  result  is,  the  monarchs  of  Europe,  of  to-day,  if  so 
disposed,  may  be  robed  in  the  color  that  Solomon  thought  worthy 
for  the  veil  of  the  Temple. 

For  a long  time  glass  was  supposed  to  be  a modern  discovery, 
but  to  the  Phoenicians  we  are  indebted  for  it.  To  Egypt  the  art 
was  first  carried,  and  the  workers  in  glass  in  that  country  excelled 
all  others.  It  was  employed  by  them  more  than  by  modern  na- 
tions, and  in  every  conceivable  way  it  was  turned  to  account.  In 
the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  glass  has  been  brought  to  light,  and  re- 
cent discoveries  in  Nineveh  show  that  the  Assyrians  employed 
lenses,  as  well  as  ordinary  articles  of  daily  use,  made  of  the  purest 
glass.  With  the  aid  of  this  invention  the  stars  of  the  heavens 
have  been  arranged  in  classes,  and  the  temperature  of  the  ocean’s 
depths  recorded,  and  the  last  and  greatest  triumph  of  creative 
art  was  the  Crystal  Palace,  that  outshone  in  splendor  the  fabled 
gifts  of  Aladdin. 

The  Egyptians  carved  rude  forms  in  stone  and  deified  them 
as  gods.  The  sphinx,  ibis,  and  the  nobler  form  of  man,  they 
wrought  in  materials  that  defy  the  tooth  of  time.  For  ages  thus 
they  worked  without  a change  of  form  ; for  the  religion  of  the 
country  allowed  of  so  much  truth  of  expression,  and  no  more. 
The  Greeks  were  restrained  by  no  such  trammels,  and  in  their 
hands  the  art  reached  its  utmost  perfe  ction — for  what  nation  can 
hope  to  excel  the  beautiful  creations  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles  ? 

The  Romans  robbed  the  Greeks  of  their  treasures,  and  hoped 
to  master  their  arts ; but  the  one  was  as  ignoble  as  the  other  was 
fruitless ; and  when  the  Goths  and  Vandals  swept  over  Italy,  they 


334 


AKT-MANUEACTURES. 


destroyed  nearly  all  that  art  had  created  in  centuries.  And  still 
later,  in  more  western  lands,  the  Iconoclasts  of  the  Reformation 
hurled  from  their  pedestals  the  cherished  objects  of  art,  and 
trampled  them  in  the  dust.  But  still  the  art  lived,  and  still  it 
breathes — not  deep  and  full,  as  in  the  days  of  Pericles  ; not  with 
the  spirit  that  animated  Phidias,  but  still  it  lives ; lowly  and  hum- 
bly, it  may  be,  but  ever  pointing  to  the  light  that  hovers  around 
the  noblest  efforts  of  creative  skill.  And  thus,  whether  it  springs 
into  being  in  a land  of  darkness,  or  comes  to  us  the  fruit  of  time 
and  culture, 

“A  thing  of  beauty  is  a joy  for  ever.” 

And  how  completely  our  own  country  exemplifies  the  remark 
that  the  arts  and  inventions  which  have  most  benefited  mankind 
are  traceable  to  an  humble  origin.  Franklin  employed  a kite  to 
draw  the  electric  fluid  to  the  earth,  and  Morse,  with  a simple 
contrivance,  mastered  and  controlled  that  powerful  agent.  The 
value  of  Fulton’s  experiments  cannot  now  be  estimated,  and  to 
our  shipbuilders  is  due  the  credit  of  improvements  that  have 
nearly  revolutionized  the  commerce  of  the  world.  Our  trades 
are  not  trammelled  by  the  guild  laws  that  weigh  heavily  upon  the 
constructive  talents  of  some  countries.  There  is  no  combination 
here  to  keep  men  of  ability  in  a subordinate  place,  but  all  have 
an  equal  opportunity  and  the  same  incentive  to  rise.  This  has 
led  our  mechanics  to  exert  themselves,  particularly  to  bring  out 
new  labor-saving  machines,  which  best  reward  their  inventors, 
and  the  readiness  with  which  this  peculiar  faculty  for  inventing 
machines,  to  overcome  difficulties  in  the  way  of  manufacturing, 
may  thus  be  illustrated.  To  compete  successfully  in  the  manu- 
facture of  shawls,  the  Bay  State  Company  required  a machine  to 
spin  a certain  part  of  the  work,  which  had  always  been  done  by 
hand  at  great  cost.  The  task  was  assigned  to  a skilful  workman, 
and  with  the  one  idea  before  him,  at  the  end  of  five  or  six  months 
he  had  a machine  in  successful  oimration  which  reduced  the  ex- 
pense of  spinning  to  one-twenty-fifth  of  the  cost  under  the  old 
method. 

By  applying  machinery  we  have  an  advantage  not  possessed 


ORNAMENT. 


335 


by  the  middle  ages.  The  coin  that  was  made,  as  we  have  shown, 
by  repeated  blows  on  the  metal,  with  a rude  die  and  a heavy 
hammer,  is  now  executed  with  the  greatest  precision  by  a simple 
contrivance.  Then  a few  hundred  impressions  only  could  be 


struck  from  the  same  die,  and  these  at  great  cost  of  time  and 
labor ; now  the  gold  and  silver  coins  unceasingly  flow  from  our 
mints.  The  delicate  tracery  in  gold  and  silver,  usually  executed 
by  the  chaser,  has  rarely  the  merit  of  a correct  design,  and  its 
fitness  is  never  considered  as  it  should  be.  Now,  patterns,  formed 


336 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


of  perforated  paper,  threads,  or  lace,  may  be  placed  between 
sheets  of  metal  and  passed  through  rollers,  leaving  a clear  im- 
press on  the  previously  plain  surface.  The  execution  is  more  per- 
fect and  economical,  and  articles  that  once  the  wealthy  alone 
could  command,  can  now  be  enjoyed  by  those  of  more  limited 
means.  The  same  is  the  result  of  what  is  now  known  as  natural 
printing;  natural  objects,  such  as  leaves  and  flowers,  giving  the 
impression  when  subjected  to  a like  process. 

Again,  take  book-binding,  the  first  materials  of  which  were 
boards  of  oak  or  chestnut  for  the  sides,  connected  with  heavy 
ropes,  and  afterwards  covered  with  leather  or  vellum.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  these  boards  were  often  covered  with  curious 
designs  of  great  beauty ; and,  to  judge  of  the  time  the  work  must 
have  consumed,  it  is  enough  to  know  that  all  the  minute  details, 
however  elaborate,  were  made  up  with  separate  tools,  worked  by 
the  hand  of  the  finisher ; and  this  process  had  to  be  repeated  on 
every  cover.  To-day  the  same  device  can  be  engraved  on  a plate 
of  brass,  with  which,  aided  by  machinery,  the  covers  of  the  largest 
editions  are  embossed  speedily  and  at  small  cost. 

But  it  is  not  necessary  that  we  should  give  instances  of  in- 
ventive skill;  those  of  our  own  countrymen  can  be  numbered  by 
thousands,  and  will  occur  to  the  minds  of  almost  every  one; 
though  we  doubt  if  many  can  be  pointed  to  whose  labors  have 
not  been  employed  to  one  end — utility  without  regard  to  beauty 
of  form.  We  never  seem  to  consider  there  is  no  dividing  line  be- 
tween the  useful  and  ornamental  arts ; or  that  “ utility  will  be  still 
more  divinely  served  through  an  alliance  with  beauty.”  It  is  the 
character  and  fitness  of  a design  that  should  first  command  our 
attention.  We  are  not  behind  the  French  or  English  in  bringing 
out  an  ornamental  design,  once  the  design  is  placed  in  our  hands. 
In  this  respect  our  activity  knows  no  bounds,  but  in  getting  up 
the  most  desirable  patterns  of  this  description  we  are  sadly  de- 
ficient. The  old  Y enetian  invented  a new  shape  for  every  glass 
he  made,  and  never  moulded  a handle  or  a lip  without  a new 
fancy  to  it,*  and  although  his  works  may  not  all  have  the  same 
attractive  qualities,  they  are  all,  at  least,  expressive  of  fitness,  and 
* Ruskin’s  Stones  of  Venice. 


ORNAMENT. 


337 


their  language  is  just  as  intelligible  to-day,  as  it  was  when  Mu- 
rano  decorated  with  mirrors  the  most  gorgeous  palaces  of  Europe. 
The  Chinese  have  not  been  surpassed,  so  far  as  the  composition 
and  glazing  of  porcelain  are  concerned,  but  in  design  and  style  of 
finish  they  are  immeasurably  behind  Europeans. 

But  we  hear  some  one  say : “We  acknowledge  our  want  of 
skill  in  this  respect ; how  shall  we  improve  our  tastes  ? ” By  en- 
couraging all  that  leads  to  ornamental  art.  By  establishing  and 
sustaining  schools  of  design,  and  by  seeing  that  every  child  ac- 
quires the  rudiments  of  drawing  at  the  same  time  that  he  masters 
his  geography  and  arithmetic.  Give  him  access  to  the  best 
models,  ancient  and  modern ; and  let  him  receive  at  the  hands  of 
competent  teachers  such  instruction  as  will  ever  after  enable  him 
to  express  his  ideas  by  means  of  chalk  and  crayons.  Such  a de- 
partment should  exist  in  every  community,  and  drawing  should 
be  as  essential  a part  of  every  school  teacher’s  qualifications  as 
excellence  in  reading  and  writing.  Not  that  we  expect  every 
teacher  to  be  a good  draughtsman,  any  more  than  we  expect 
perfection  in  other  branches ; but  as  some  considerable  proficien- 
cy is  looked  for  in  one  department,  so  ought  we  to  demand  it  in 
another.  Far  better  would  it  be,  if  a choice  must  necessarily  be 
made,  for  a child  to  know  something  of  form  and  how  to  express 
its  just  proportions,  than  the  attainment  of  a little  Greek  and 
Latin ; for  if  intended  for  any  thing  short  of  the  professions,  the 
dead  languages  will  avail  little  ; whereas  a knowledge  of  drawing 
will  be  found  useful  in  any  position  in  life.  But  there  is  no  need 
of  sacrificing  one  of  these  pursuits  to  the  other ; for  drawing  is 
usually  esteemed  a privilege  by  the  pupil,  and  may  be  used  as  an 
incentive  to  progress  in  other  studies.  The  child  with  naturally 
a correct  eye  and  a fine  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  needs  but 
a little  guidance  at  the  start  to  attain  to  a high  degree  of  excel- 
lence ; the  dull  may  never  get  beyond  the  rudiments,  but  even 
this  small  insight  into  the  mystery  of  lines  is  of  real  importance. 

In  this  country  we  look  upon  drawing  as  a pretty  accomplish- 
ment, that  a young  lady  may  aspire  to,  as  she  does  to  proficiency 
in  music.  But  the  time  spent  by  her  over  flower-painting  will 
not  be  wholly  lost.  The  lesson,  though  of  the  lightest  kind,  will 
15 


338 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


have  some  weight,  for  it  will  teach  her  that  there  is  such  a thing 
as  art,  and  in  this  there  is  gain. 

But  the  one  who  is  really  to  be  benefited  by  a school  of  de- 
sign, is  the  artisan.  To  him  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
know  how  to  delineate  the  form  of  whatever  he  is  required  to 
construct.  Properly  instructed,  he  not  only  designs  with  greater 
ease,  and  makes  himself  independent  of  professional  draughtsmen, 
but  he  is  also  enabled  to  assist  those  who  require  his  mechanical 
skill,  and  know  not  how  to  express  their  ideas.  This  advantage 
is  enjoyed  to  an  eminent  degree  by  the  half  civilized  Japanese. 
With  them  many  years  of  apprenticeship  are  required  before  one 
can  rank  as  a workman ; but  at  the  expiration  of  that  time  he  is  per- 
fect, so  far  as  their  arts  will  carry  him.  All  are  said  to  draw  with 
accuracy,  and  without  a draught  they  will  not  undertake  any  im- 
portant work.  This  peculiarity  has  been  forcibly  dwelt  upon  by 
one  who  has  recently  had  an  opportunity  of  watching  their  move- 
ments closely.  “The  rapidity  with  which  they  erect  and  finish  a 
building,”  he  remarks,  “is  rather  interesting,  and  they  never  at- 
tempt any  thing  of  the  sort  till  a plan  of  the  same  is  drawn ; the 
elevations,  &c.,  are  all  marked  out  on  a board,  and  in  sight  of  the 
workmen,  so  that  each  one  understands  what  is  to  be  done ; and 
precisely  as  is  the  plan,  so  will  the  building  be  when  finished. 
I noticed,”  he  continues,  “ if  they  wished  to  ceil  a room  overhead, 
the  entire  ceiling  was  raised  at  once — that  is,  it  was  fitted  before 
any  of  it  was  put  up,  and  raised  to  the  place  where  it  belonged ; 
it  is  an  exact  fit,  and  only  required  a few  nails  to  have  the  job 
completed.  Now  our  style  of  joiner’s  work  would  be,  to  fit  and 
put  up  each  board  by  itself*  showing  that  the  Japanese  work 
from  measure  and  rule  with  unmistakable  accuracy.”  And  since 
this  subject  has  been  forced  on  the  attention  of  England,  the 
opinion  has  there  been  expressed  that  a ploughman  would  turn  a 
truer  furrow,  and  a hedger  and  ditcher  make  straighter  and 
better  work,  for  knowing  how  to  hold  a pencil  and  draw  a line 
with  it. 

But  these  things  can  only  be  brought  about  by  adopting  sound 
principles  as  a basis.  Art,  we  know,  can  only  suggest  to  the 
mind,  and  composition  is  derived  from  a study  of  its  means  and 


ORNAMENT. 


339 


capabilities,  as  well  as  from  the  study  of  nature.  In  large  cities 
there  should  be  schools  of  design  solely  to  rear  up  a class  of 
teachers  ; but  the  place  where,  of  all  others,  such  schools  would 
be  most  productive  of  good,  are  the  manufacturing  towns.  In 
these  the  pupils  would  have  at  the  same  time  an  opportunity  of 
studying  the  processes  of  manufacturing;  and  understanding 
these,  they  could  adapt  their  designs  to  the  wants  of  the  public, 
and  the  nature  of  the  materials  in  which  they  are  to  be  wrought. 
Men  of  science  should  give  more  attention  to  the  wants  of  the 
manufacturer,  and  a cordial  understanding  between  the  two 
would  result  in  mutual  good ; for  the  one  could  throw  light  on 
many  things  that  are  yet  obscure,  and  the  other  would  learn  the 
practical  operations  of  many  beautiful  theories.  The  manufac- 
turing arts  of  the  ancients  should  be  placed  before  the  pupil,  to 
be  explained  by  the  instructors ; and  committees  should  be  ap- 
pointed to  visit  and  correspond  with  distant  manufacturing  towns 
and  villages.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  course  adopted  in  Eng- 
land, where,  little  as  is  there  thought  of  our  inventions,  save  for 
articles  designed  wholly  for  utility,  committees  have  been  formed 
and  sent  to  this  country,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  such  infor- 
mation as  could  be  made  immediately  available  at  home.  In 
return,  we  should  frequently  send  juries  to  France  and  England, 
or  even  to  the  quiet  shades  of  Mount  Athos,  where  the  Greek 
students  of  to-day  are  struggling  to  master  the  arts  of  design 
under  the  tutelage  of  monks;  and  if  they  extended  their  search 
to  the  far  off  Indias,  where  the  arts  of  design  flourished  thousands 
of  years  ago  with  a wild  luxuriance  known  only  to  the  tropics, 
they  would  find  the  natives,  impressed  with  the  superior  tastes 
of  civilized  nations,  adapting  anew  the  natural  flowers  and  plants 
of  their  country  to  the  purposes  of  ornamental  art. 

And  the  advantages  derived  by  society,  in  opening  another 
field  for  the  usefulness  of  woman,  should  not  be  lost  sight  of. 
Designing  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  her  tastes  and  habits,  and 
wherever  an  opportunity  has  been  afforded  her,  to  increase  her 
usefulness  by  a knowledge  of  this  branch  of  industry,  she  has 
shown  herself  skilful,  quick,  and  inventive.  Some  of  the  finest 
wood  engravings  that . decorate  the  pages  of  the  London  Art 


340 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


Journal,  were  executed  by  women,  and  in  our  leading  cities  there 
are  schools  of  design  in  successful  operation  for  their  especial 
benefit.  The  attendance  is  not  large,  but  the  improvement  is 
such  as  warrants  the  directors  in  keeping  the  schools  open.  A 
few  dollars  a quarter  are  usually  charged  for  tuition,  rather  to 
give  the  pupil  a sense  of  independence  than  to  add  to  the  funds 
of  the  school ; and  besides  the  regular  pupils,  a number  of  the 
teachers  from  the  public  schools  receive  instruction  daily. 

As  yet  there  has  been  no  proper  recognition  of  woman’s  pow- 
ers. Heretofore  drudgery  and  ceaseless  stitching  with  her  needle 
were  all  that  was  required  of  her ; her  highest  endowments  have 
been  lost  sight  of,  and  she  has  had  no  great  incentive  to  improve 
her  mind.  Showy  accomplishments  will  suffice,  if  wealthy ; and 
if  doomed  to  a life  of  drudgery  in  after  years,  the  labor  spent  in 
preparing  for  a higher  order  of  things  is  time  lost.  With  the 
best  education  our  schools  have  afforded,  if  thrown  upon  her  own 
resources,  she  must  still  undergo  another  training  before  she  can 
hope  to  maintain  herself  at  all.  Even  then,  it  must  be  with  the 
sacrifice  of  every  thing  but  her  integrity,  and  too  often  that  also 
gives  way  beneath  the  pressure  of  want. 

But  again  it  will  be  said,  “ A course  of  training  will  do  very 
well  for  the  younger  members  of  society ; yet  how  are  those  who 
have  come  to  maturity,  and  have  but  little  time  at  their  command, 
to  improve  their  tastes  ? ” And  again  We  reply : Simply  by  ob- 
servation. We  know  that  whatever  increases  the  exercise  of  the 
imagination,  increases  also  the  emotion  of  beauty.  See,  then, 
that  there  is  a due  regard  for  the  beautiful  in  every  thing  to 
which  it  may  be  applied.  “ But  how  draw  the  line,  and  say,  this 
shall  be  adorned  and  this  shall  be  retained  for  its  usefulness  ? ” 
And  to  this  we  reply : A due  consideration  should  be  had  for  the 
form  of  every  thing,  from  the  swaddling-clothes  in  which  the  in- 
fant is  first  wrapped,  to  the  sculptured  stone  that  marks  our  last 
resting-place.  Whatever  speaks  of  the  past  or  points  to  the  fu- 
ture, and  all  things  that  relate  to  our  comfort  and  well-being, 
should  be  clothed  in  a fitting  form.  There  is  no  portion  of  a 
building,  internal  or  external,  that  may  not  be  decorated  in  the 
same  way.  A square  window  will  let  into  our  churches  the  light 


s 


' 


CARVINGS  IN  OAK. 


ORNAMENT. 


341 


and  air  just  as  well  as  a pointed  one  ;^but  the  latter  we  associate 
with  the  overarching  houghs,  beneath  which  men  first  assembled 
to  worship  God ; whereas  the  other  is  valued  only  so  far  as  it 
ministers  to  our  necessities.  The  rose  and  honeysuckle  can  be 
trained  over  our  stiff, and  formal  country  houses,  without  reliev- 
ing the  barrenness  of  such  fronts ; but  clustering  in  graceful  lines 
around  the  porch  of  some  humble  cottage,  they  invite  one  to  rest 
and  enjoy  their  sweets. 

And  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  purchase  an  article,  and 
the  materials  are  equally  good,  choose  that  which  combines  in 
the  greatest  degree  beauty  of  form  with  utility.  In  selecting  a 
paper  for  our  walls,  be  guided  by  the  size  and  position  of  the 
room,  as  well  as  by  the  style  and  color  of  the  furniture — a difficult 
thing  to  bring  about,  it  must  be  confessed,  for  there  is  little  in 
our  house  paper  that  is  not  tawdry  and  in  direct  violation  of  good 
taste.  If  a room  is  to  be  newly  furnished,  care  should  be  taken 
that  in  no  particular  it  offend  the  eye,  which  is  exceedingly  sensi- 
tive to  incongruity  in  color.  All  theories  of  color,  it  is  well 
known,  are  based  on  the  harmony  of  the  external  world.  We 
see  a violation  of  the  laws  of  nature  wherever  our  steps  are 
turned,  and  the  organ  of  sight,  refusing  to  rest  on  a sky-blue 
fence,  is  the  next  moment  forced  to  gaze  on  a carpet  in  which 
colors,  mixed  in  a heterogeneous  mass,  are  endeavoring  to  surpass 
each  other  in  brilliancy  and  effect.  Whereas,  by  proper  attention 
to  the  harmony  of  color,  and  by  giving  every  hue  its  proper  me- 
dia, the  most  pleasing  sensation  may  be  produced  by  a few  simple 
shades,  and  the  impression  thus  received  will  not  soon  fade  from 
the  mind. 

If  this  subject  received  the  attention  it  deserves,  it  would  re- 
pay the  student  by  giving  him  such  an  appreciation  of  real  har- 
mony as  could  be  derived  from  no  other  source.  He  would  find 
that  all  colors  are  classed ; that  the  primaries  consist  of  red,  blue, 
and  yellow ; that  the  secondaries  are  divided  into  accidental,  op- 
posite, harmonious,  contrasting,  and  complementary — all  of  which 
are  composed  of  combinations  of  the  primaries,  as  yellow  and 
blue,  in  proper  proportions,  make  a green,  which  is  the  opposite 
of  red — and  that  the  tertiaries  are  composed  of  combinations  of 


342 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


tlie  secondaries.  Each  combination  has  its  proper  media,  which, 
by  the  same  rule,  may  he  extended  to  every  conceivable  shade, 
producing  in  such  cases  the  utmost  harmony  and  beauty. 

But  here  we  are  entering  too  wide  a field.  The  test  we  have 
named  should  be  applied  in  every  case  where  colors  are  to  be 
used,  and  all  the  influence  brought  to  bear  on  such  colors  should 
be  first  considered  before  decorations  are  commenced.  Our  car- 
pets, and,  in  fact,  all  that  is  intended  to  furnish  a room,  should  be 
selected  with  a due  regard  to  the  end  had  in  view.  And  if  cold 
blue  is  balanced  by  a ruddy  orange,  warm  green  by  a cold  red, 
crimson  by  a brown,  gray  by  a deep  tawny,  and  a rich  maroon 
by  a poplar  green  or  sky  blue,  harmony  will  prevail — always  pro- 
viding that  one  is  selected  for  a key  note,  and  that  all  others  are 
subservient  to  it.  Harmony  is  not  lost  by  using  intense  colors,  if 
the  extremes  of  warm  and  cold  are  avoided,  and  each  color  is 
properly  balanced ; but  the  most  pleasing  effect  is  produced  by 
selecting  a low  note  and  keeping  every  shade  to  that  standard. 

And  as  to  furniture,  there  is  no  end  to  the  application  of 
ornamental  art  to  such  articles  of  utility,  and  certainly  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  age  requires  due  attention  to  the  subject.  The 
clumsy  chairs  of  Henry  VIII.  were  just  as  serviceable  as  those 
that  are  now  made  after  French  patterns.  The  rushes  that  sup- 
plied Elizabeth  with  a carpet  answered  the  ends  of  that  fastidious 
queen  as  well  as  the  imitation  Brussels  carpets  of  to-day  serve  our 
purpose.  But  it  is  hardly  to  be  presumed  that  the  clumsy  chairs 
and  the  rushes  of  the  House  of  Tudor  would  be  admissible  in  our 
dwellings.  And  if  we  have  advanced  to  a period  that  requires 
articles  of  luxury  and  refinement,  it  is  certainly  proper  that  Ave 
should  furnish  the  designer  as  well  as  the  workman  to  execute 
our  orders.  Great  complaint  is  made  if  we  go  abroad  for  the  raw 
materials  our  own  country  can  supply — why  not  show  the  same 
jealousy  of  foreign  articles  of  taste,  and  by  meeting  the  demand 
with  home  products,  drive  all  competitors  out  of  the  market  ? 

There  is  nothing  on  which  we  bestow  less  thought  than  on  a 
flat  iron,  and  in  this  humble  article  we  never  look  for  any  thing 
but  utility.  Yet  its  form  admits  of  a graceful  finish  that  in  no 
way  interferes  with  its  usefulness,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century 


ORNAMENT. 


343 


it  received  a full  share  of  attention.  But  what  is  lacking  in  the 
flat  iron,  which  never  leaves  the  kitchen,  is  more  than  made  up 
in  the  stove,  designed  for  the  parlor.  In  this  ornamentation  is 
carried  to  excess,  and  the  effect,  so  far  from  being  agreeable,  is 
often  repulsive.  The  idea  of  fitness  was  certainly  never  consid- 
ered in  placing  a bird’s  nest,  cooing  doves,  and  angel  forms  on 
an  article  that  is  at  times  red-hot.  We  see  this  daily,  and  with- 
out attempting  to  analyze  our  feelings,  we  instinctively  withdraw 
the  eye  from  such  an  object.  But  if  a miniature  frame,  surround- 
ed by  the  flowers  of  the  forget-me-not,  is  placed  before  us,  the 
association  is  most  agreeable.  The  language  employed  speaks  to 
the  imagination  as  well  as  to  the  eye.  Whereas,  if,  instead  of 
the  forget-me-not,  the  folds  of  the  serpent  were  entwined  around 
it,  we  should  be  repulsed,  for  no  one  cares  to  see  a loved  form  in 
such  an  embrace.  Yet  we  are  more  likely  to  see  the  latter  de- 
vice, for  the  designer,  seeking  only  for  novelty  of  construction, 
seizes  that  which  produces  most  effect,  whether  it  be  good  or 
bad.  Study  and  a regular  course  of  training  could  alone  lead 
him  to  avoid  such  an  error,  which,  when  pointed  out,  would  ap- 
pear to  him  as  clear  as  the  light  of  day. 

We  know  well  enough  that  certain  goods  sell  better  in  our 
markets  than  others.  English  and  American  prints  would  stand 
no  chance  with  those  of  France,  at  the  same  price.  The  quality 
of  the  cloth  is  no  better ; it  must  be,  then,  that  the  design  makes 
all  the  difference  in  the  world.  No  gloves  will  sell  but  those  of 
French  manufacture,  and  no  cabinetmaker  can  draw  customers 
to  his  warerooms  till  he  spreads  his  tables  with  imported  designs. 
It  would  be  an  insult  to  say  that  we  prefer  these  things  because 
they  are  foreign.  We  do  .not  g^o  abroad  for  our  broadcloths  and 
plain  cottons,  for  in  the  manufacture  of  these  goods  we  are  not 
surpassed.  Our  carpets  are  as  Tvell  made  as  the  English  article, 
and,  so  long  as  the  designs  are  equal,  they  are  preferred,  from 
the  simple  fact  that  they  are  home  products.  Our  printing  press- 
es and  reaping  machines  are  in  demand  in  Europe,  and  in  ship- 
building we  stand  in  the  front  rank.  These  are  honors,  certainly ; 
and  as  we  have  done  so  well  in  all  that  relates  to  utility,  why 
may  we  not  gather  fresh  laurels  by  bringing  about  an  alliance 


344 


ART-MANUFACTURES. 


with  beauty  ? To  do  this  something  more  is  wanted  than  to  fa- 
cilitate the  progress  of  manufacturing.  Utility  may  be  the 
groundwork,  but  art  must  be  the  structure ; for  without  a 
knowledge  of  art  we  cannot  judge  correctly  of  a design,  and 
without  a design,  based  upon  sound  principles,  we  cannot  com- 
pete with  those  who  have  enjoyed  a higher  degree  of  culture. 

A liberal  employment  of  articles  artistically  adorned  is  one  of 
the  first  steps  towards  awakening  a taste  for  art.  Books  of  ele- 
mentary instruction  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  children ; 
and,  above  all,  schools  of  design  should  be  opened  in  our  manu- 
facturing towns,  to  raise  up  a class  of  designers  of  our  own. 
Such  a work  parents  should  take  an  interest  in ; and  manufactur- 
ers, who  now  annually  spend  large  sums  for  designs  from  Europe, 
can  afford  to  give  the  cause  their  hearty  support.  They  are  cer- 
tainly called  upon,  by  an  increased  refinement,  for  designs  of  a 
higher  order  than  they  have  been  accustomed  to  furnish,  and  it 
is  only  by  the  alliance  we  have  repeatedly  referred  to,  that  we 
may  hope  to  diminish  the  superiority  of  our  neighbors,  and  bring 
the  art  products  of  America  to  a level  with  those  of  France  and 
Great  Britain. 


I. 


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